Urban theory describes the economic, political and social processes which affect the formation and development of cities.

Overview

Theoretical discourse has often polarized between economic determinismMarx, K. (1976) Capital Vol 1Harmondsworth: Penguin (Original work published in 1867) and cultural determinismWeber, M. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, London: Allen & Unwin (Originally published in 1905) with scientific or technological determinism adding another contentious issue of reification. Studies across eastern and western nations have suggested that certain cultural values promote economic development and that the economy in turn changes cultural values.Allen, M. W. Ng, S. H. Ikeda, K. Jawan, J. A. Sufi, A. H. Wilson, M. & Yang, K. S. "Two Decades of Change in Cultural Values and Economic Development in Eight East Asian and Pacific Island Nations" in Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology Vol. 38: pp. 247-69 Urban historians were among the first to acknowledge the importance of technology in the city.Hommels, A. "Studying Obducracy in the City: Toward a Productive Fusion between Technology Studies and Urban Studies" in Science Technology and Human Values, Vol. 30 No. 3: pp.323-51 It embeds the single most dominant characteristic of a city; its networked character perpetuated by information technology.Graham, S. & Marvin, S. (1996) Telecommunications and the City: Electronic Spaces, Urban Places, London: Routledge Regardless of the deterministic stance (economic, cultural or technological), in the context of globalization, there is a mandate to mold the city to complement the global economic structure and urbanomics gains ascendancy.

Political processes

Lewis Mumford described monumental architecture as an "expression of power" seeking to produce "respectful terror". Gigantism, geometry, and order are characteristic of cities such as Washington, D.C., New Delhi, Beijing and Brasília.

Economic capital and globalization

The Industrial Revolution was accompanied by urbanization in Europe and the United States in the 19th century. Friedrich Engels studied Manchester, which was being transformed by the cotton industry. He noted how the city was divided into the wealthy and working class areas, which were physically separated so that one could not see any of the latter from the former. The city was therefore a function of

capital Capital may refer to: Common uses * Capital city, a municipality of primary status ** List of national capital cities * Capital letter, an upper-case letter Economics and social sciences * Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used f ...

Georg Simmel Georg Simmel (; ; 1 March 1858 – 26 September 1918) was a German sociologist, philosopher, and critic. Simmel was influential in the field of sociology. Simmel was one of the first generation of German sociologists: his neo-Kantian approach l ...

studied the effect of the urban environment on the individuals living in cities, arguing in '' The Metropolis and Mental Life'' that the increase in human interaction affected relationships. The activity and anonymity of the city led a 'blasé attitude' with reservations and aloofness by urban denizens. This was also driven by the market economy of the city, which corroded traditional norms. However, people in cities were also more tolerant and sophisticated. Henri Lefebvre argued in the 1960s and 1970s that urban space is dominated by the interests of corporations and capitalism. Private places such as shopping centres and office buildings dominated over public space. The economic relations could be seen in the city itself, with wealthy areas being far more opulent than the run-down parts of the poor. To fix this, a

right to the city The right to the city is an idea and a slogan first proposed by Henri Lefebvre in his 1968 book . This idea has been taken up more recently by social movements, thinkers, and certain progressive local authorities as a call to action to reclaim th ...

needed to be asserted to give everyone a say on urban space.

Economic sustainability

In fact, urbanomics can spillover beyond the city parameters. The process of globalization extends its territories into global city regions. Essentially, they are territorial platforms (metropolitan extensions from key cities, chain of cities linked within a state territory or across inter-state boundaries and arguably; networked cities and/or regions cutting across national boundaries) interconnected in the globalized economy. Some see global city-regions rather than global cities as the nodes of a global network.Scott, A. J. (ed.) (2001) Global City-Regions, Oxford: Oxford University Press Sennett, R. 1990 The Conscience of the Eye, the Design and Social Life of Cities, London: Norton & Company The rules of engagement are built on economic sustainability – the ability to continuously generate wealth. The cornerstones of this economic framework are the following ‘4C’ attributes: (1) currency flow for trading, (2) commoditization of products and services in supply chain management, (3) command centre function in orchestrating interdependency and monitoring executions and (4) consumerization. Unless, decoupling the economy from these attributes can be demonstrated; symbolic capital expressions as legitimate as they may be; must accept the domineering status of urbanomics.

Revisiting economic measurements

Arguably, the culprit of this economic entrapment is the high consumption lifestyle synonymous with affluence. The resolve may well be that ‘less is more’ and that true welfare lies not in a rise in production and income. As such, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is increasingly being questioned as inaccurate and inadequate. GDP includes things that do not contribute to sustainable growth and excludes non-monetary benefits that improve the welfare of the people. In response, alternative measures have been proposed such as the Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI)Talberth, J. Cobb, C. & Slattery, N. (2006) "The Genuine Progress Indicator 2006 – Executive Summary" in Redefining Progress http://www.rprogress.org/publications/2007/GPI2006_ExecSumm.pdf Accessed 16 May 09 and the Index of Sustainable Welfare - ISEW.Hanley, N. Moffat, I. Faichney, R. and Wilson, M. (1999) "Measuring Sustainability: A Time Series of Alternative Indicators for Scotland" in Ecological Economics, 28(1) pp.55-73

References

External links

MA Theories of Urban Practice program in New York City

Notes

*Papageorgiou, Y. & Pines, D. (1999)An Essay on Urban Economic Theory, London: Kluwer Academic Publishers *Steingart, G. (2008) The War for Wealth. The True Story of Globalization or Why the Flat World is Broken, New York: McGraw Hill
Aseem Inam, ''Designing Urban Transformation'' New York and London: Routledge, 2013.
{{ISBN, 978-0415837705. Urban planning Urban economics