Relations between the
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been de ...
(EU) and the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
(UK) are governed, since 1 January 2021, by the
EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA).
Relations trace back to the foundation of the
European Communities, the European Union's predecessor, in 1957. The UK was a member state of the bloc after joining it in 1973 (which was confirmed in a
referendum on membership in 1975) until it became the first country to voluntarily end its membership on 31 January 2020 after a
second referendum on membership was held in 2016 which resulted in 51.9% of voters opting to leave.
The
Brexit withdrawal agreement
The Brexit withdrawal agreement, officially titled Agreement on the withdrawal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community, is a treaty between the European Uni ...
now plays a significant role in relations between the two polities. The United Kingdom shares a land border with the
Republic of Ireland
Ireland ( ga, Éire ), also known as the Republic of Ireland (), is a country in north-western Europe consisting of 26 of the 32 Counties of Ireland, counties of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, on the eastern ...
, an EU member state,
via Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland ( ga, Tuaisceart Éireann ; sco, label= Ulster-Scots, Norlin Airlann) is a part of the United Kingdom, situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, that is variously described as a country, province or region. Nort ...
, which has remained a
de facto
''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with ''de jure'' ("by la ...
member of the
European Single Market and maintained the authority of the
European Court of Justice under the
Northern Ireland Protocol
The Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland, commonly abbreviated to the Northern Ireland Protocol, is a protocol to the Brexit withdrawal agreement that governs the unique customs and immigration issues at the border on the island of Ireland betw ...
. While relations between the UK and the EU have seen improvement since the proposal of the
Windsor Framework, relations have been generally poor since the initial Brexit vote.
History
Precedents
The UK failed to take part in the diplomatic discussions that led up to the creation of the
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), likewise later withdrawing from negotiations for the constitution of the
European Economic Community (EEC).
The United Kingdom's failed applications to join the
European Communities (EC) in 1963 and 1967 were vetoed by the president of France,
Charles de Gaulle, who said that "a number of aspects of
Britain's economy, from working practices to
agriculture
Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people t ...
" had "made Britain incompatible with Europe" and that Britain harboured a "deep-seated hostility" to any pan-European project.
Once de Gaulle had relinquished the
French presidency in 1969, the UK made a third and successful application for membership.
UK membership in the bloc (1973–2020)
Following the UK accession to the EC in 1973, the former got to renegotiate membership terms, vied for budgetary rebates and requested opt-outs from the single currency and other common policies.
The protectionist
Common Agricultural Policy
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the agricultural policy of the European Union. It implements a system of agricultural subsidies and other programmes. It was introduced in 1962 and has since then undergone several changes to reduce the ...
(CAP) in particular was often at the centre of the UK conflicts with the rest of the EC, underpinning its reputation as an "awkward partner" within the bloc.
Since 1977, both pro- and anti-European views have had majority support at different times, with some dramatic swings between the two camps.
Conservative and Labour parties alike usually pandered to the prejudices towards the EC espoused by the Britons, who rather than commit to a European idea, generally preferred to hanker for the bygone days of British world hegemony. In the
United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum of 1975, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. The highest-ever rejection of membership was in 1980, the first full year of Prime Minister
Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher (; 13 October 19258 April 2013) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the first female British prime ...
's term of office, with 65% opposed to and 26% in favour of membership.
As a member of the EU, the United Kingdom never adopted the use of the
euro
The euro ( symbol: €; code: EUR) is the official currency of 19 out of the member states of the European Union (EU). This group of states is known as the eurozone or, officially, the euro area, and includes about 340 million citizens . ...
or joined the
Schengen Area, which, bringing down border controls in a number of countries, thereby allowed for free movement of citizens. Likewise, the UK government adhered to a long-standing policy of enthusiasm for
EU enlargement
The European Union (EU) has expanded a number of times throughout its history by way of the accession of new member states to the Union. To join the EU, a state needs to fulfil economic and political conditions called the Copenhagen criteria ( ...
, under the premise that the addition of more members would undermine any federalising drive (deepening) of the union.
Vis-à-vis
Gibraltar
)
, anthem = " God Save the King"
, song = " Gibraltar Anthem"
, image_map = Gibraltar location in Europe.svg
, map_alt = Location of Gibraltar in Europe
, map_caption = United Kingdom shown in pale green
, mapsize =
, image_map2 = Gib ...
, a
British Overseas Territory whose defence and foreign policies are handled by His Majesty's Government, the
Spain's accession to the European Communities in 1986, negotiated with the UK inside the bloc from a position of strength, made the former country to renounce its power, recognised by the
Treaty of Utrecht
The Peace of Utrecht was a series of peace treaties signed by the belligerents in the War of the Spanish Succession, in the Dutch city of Utrecht between April 1713 and February 1715. The war involved three contenders for the vacant throne ...
, to close
its land border with Gibraltar at its discretion. The then Conservative UK government acquiesced to the 1992
Maastricht Treaty
The Treaty on European Union, commonly known as the Maastricht Treaty, is the foundation treaty of the European Union (EU). Concluded in 1992 between the then-twelve Member state of the European Union, member states of the European Communities, ...
(by which the European Union came into existence) as it aligned with its vision of the bloc as essentially a free market.
The 1998
Good Friday Agreement
The Good Friday Agreement (GFA), or Belfast Agreement ( ga, Comhaontú Aoine an Chéasta or ; Ulster-Scots: or ), is a pair of agreements signed on 10 April 1998 that ended most of the violence of The Troubles, a political conflict in No ...
pertaining the end of the
ethnonationalist conflict in Northern Ireland was signed under the context of the shared membership of the UK and Ireland in the EU.
![Prime Minister Theresa May met with Jean-Claude Juncker, President of the European Commission, after the European Council meeting](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Prime_Minister_Theresa_May_met_with_Jean-Claude_Juncker%2C_President_of_the_European_Commission%2C_after_the_European_Council_meeting.jpg)
Following the result of the
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, when 52 percent of those who voted supported '
Brexit
Brexit (; a portmanteau of "British exit") was the withdrawal of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU) at 23:00 GMT on 31 January 2020 (00:00 1 February 2020 CET).The UK also left the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC ...
' (a portmanteau of "British exit"), the UK
negotiated its withdrawal from the European Union. After the vote, British Prime Minister
David Cameron, who supported staying in the EU, resigned.
Theresa May
Theresa Mary May, Lady May (; née Brasier; born 1 October 1956) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 2016 to 2019. She previously served in David Cameron's cabi ...
became the prime minister after his formal resignation. Although she also supported remaining in the EU, she committed to negotiating Britain's exit. The United Kingdom formally left the bloc on 31 January 2020.
Post-Brexit relations (since 2020)
On 30 December 2020, after eight months of negotiations, the EU and the UK signed the
EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement, which governs bilateral relations since its provisional entry into force two days later and which was later ratified by both parties. The UK government attempts to reject the terms of the agreed
Northern Ireland Protocol
The Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland, commonly abbreviated to the Northern Ireland Protocol, is a protocol to the Brexit withdrawal agreement that governs the unique customs and immigration issues at the border on the island of Ireland betw ...
have proven a thorn in Post-Brexit relations.
Although the United Kingdom maintained strong relations with some EU member states, the decision to withdraw sparked criticism of the United Kingdom across the union and especially in the German press. However, the British response to the
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
On 24 February 2022, in a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War, which began in 2014. The invasion has resulted in tens of thousands of deaths on both sides. It has caused Europe's largest refugee crisis since World War II. ...
is thought to have "restored relations to pre-Brexit levels".
Post-Brexit Polling
Following the UK's withdrawal from the EU, polling companies have continued to poll respondents on re-joining the EU.
National Polling
Respondents are regularly polled on their voting intention in a hypothetical referendum on re-joining the EU. This is instead of re-using the leave/ remain question from the 2016 referendum.
Recent polling results have demonstrated a clear lead for "re-join" over "stay
ngout". A longer example of the following table can be found
here.
In the European Union
In 2021,
Euronews commissioned British pollsters Redfield & Wilton Strategies to conduct a poll in France, Germany, Spain, and Italy on how respondents would feel about the UK re-joining the EU. Support out-weighed opposition across all four countries, with it being lowest in France (36%) and highest in Spain (46%).
Trade
In 2017, exports to the European Union amounted to £274 billion out of £616 billion in total exports for the UK. The proportion of UK export to the
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been de ...
has been noted to be in decline, since exports to non-EU countries have increased at a faster rate.
On the European side, according to
Eurostat, exports from the EU 27 to the UK have increased from 316 euro billions in 2015 to 319 euro billions in 2019.
In the same time, according to Eurostat, imports from the UK to the EU-27 have increased from 184 euro billions in 2015 to 194 euro billions in 2019.
[Eurostat, EU trade since 1988 by CN8 S-016890/ref>
]
United Kingdom's foreign relations with EU member states (EU27)
See also
* Cyprus dispute
* European Union–NATO relations
* Foreign relations of the European Union
* Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
The diplomatic foreign relations of the United Kingdom are conducted by the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, headed by the Foreign Secretary. The prime minister and numerous other agencies play a role in setting policy, and many ...
* Gibraltar–Spain border
The Gibraltar–Spain border is the international boundary between the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar and the Kingdom of Spain. It is also referred to as "The Fence of Gibraltar" () or simply "The Fence".
The border runs east–wes ...
* Greenland–European Union relations
Greenland, an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark (which also includes the territories of Denmark and Faroe Islands) is one of the EU members’ overseas countries and territories (OCT) associated to the European Union. Greenland ...
* Iceland–European Union relations
* Ireland–NATO relations
* Liechtenstein–European Union relations
Relations between the Principality of Liechtenstein (german: Fürstentum Liechtenstein) and the European Union (EU) are shaped heavily by Liechtenstein's participation in the European Economic Area (EEA).
Comparison
Market access
Liechtenstein ...
* Malta–NATO relations
* Norway–European Union relations
Norway is not a member state of the European Union (EU). However, it is associated with the Union through its membership of the European Economic Area (EEA), signed in 1992 and established in 1994. Norway was a founding member of the European Free ...
*
*
* Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union
, the United Kingdom's post-Brexit relationship with the European Union and its members is governed by the Brexit withdrawal agreement and the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement. The latter was negotiated in 2020 and has applied since ...
* Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border
The Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border, sometimes referred to as the Irish border or British–Irish border, runs for Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland, 1999
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:United Kingdom-European Union relations
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been de ...
Contemplated enlargements of the European Union