USS ''President'' was a wooden-

hulled Husk (or hull) in botany is the outer shell or coating of a seed. In the United States, the term husk often refers to the leafy outer covering of an ear of maize (corn) as it grows on the plant. Literally, a husk or hull includes the protective ...

, three- masted

heavy frigate A frigate () is a type of warship. In different eras, the roles and capabilities of ships classified as frigates have varied somewhat. The name frigate in the 17th to early 18th centuries was given to any full-rigged ship built for speed and ...

of the

United States Navy The United States Navy (USN) is the maritime service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. It is the largest and most powerful navy in the world, with the estimated tonnage ...

, nominally rated at 44 guns. She was launched in April 1800 from a shipyard in New York City. ''President'' was one of the original six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized, and she was the last to be completed. The name "President" was among ten names submitted to President

George Washington George Washington (February 22, 1732, 1799) was an American military officer, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Appointed by the Continental Congress as commander of th ...

by Secretary of War

Timothy Pickering Timothy Pickering (July 17, 1745January 29, 1829) was the third United States Secretary of State under Presidents George Washington and John Adams. He also represented Massachusetts in both houses of Congress as a member of the Federalist Party. ...

in March of 1795 for the frigates that were to be constructed.

Joshua Humphreys Joshua Humphreys (June 17, 1751 – January 12, 1838) was an American ship builder and naval architect. He was the constructor of the original six frigates of the United States Navy and is known as the "Father of the American Navy". Humphreys wa ...

designed these frigates to be the young Navy's

capital ship The capital ships of a navy are its most important warships; they are generally the larger ships when compared to other warships in their respective fleet. A capital ship is generally a leading or a primary ship in a naval fleet. Strategic im ...

s, and so ''President'' and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period. Forman Cheeseman, and later

Christian Bergh Christian Bergh (April 30, 1763June 24, 1843), was the oldest and one of the first American shipbuilders in New York. He was known for not allowing drinking and was the first shipbuilder to employ African Americans at his shipyard. He contributed ...

were in charge of her construction. Her first duties with the newly formed United States Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the

Quasi War The Quasi-War (french: Quasi-guerre) was an undeclared naval war fought from 1798 to 1800 between the United States and the French First Republic, primarily in the Caribbean and off the East Coast of the United States. The ability of Congress ...

with France and to engage in a

punitive expedition A punitive expedition is a military journey undertaken to punish a political entity or any group of people outside the borders of the punishing state or union. It is usually undertaken in response to perceived disobedient or morally wrong behavio ...

against the

Barbary pirates The Barbary pirates, or Barbary corsairs or Ottoman corsairs, were Muslim pirates and privateers who operated from North Africa, based primarily in the ports of Salé, Rabat, Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli, Libya, Tripoli. This area was known i ...

in the

First Barbary War The First Barbary War (1801–1805), also known as the Tripolitan War and the Barbary Coast War, was a conflict during the Barbary Wars, in which the United States and Sweden fought against Tripolitania. Tripolitania had declared war against Sw ...

. On 16 May 1811, ''President'' was at the center of the

Little Belt affair The ''Little Belt'' affair was a naval battle on the night of 16 May 1811. It involved the United States frigate and the British sixth-rate , a sloop-of-war, which had originally been the Danish ship ''Lillebælt'', before being captured by ...

; her crew mistakenly identified as , which had impressed an American seaman. The ships exchanged cannon fire for several minutes. Subsequent U.S. and

Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...

investigations placed responsibility for the attack on each other without a resolution. The incident contributed to tensions between the U.S. and Great Britain that led to the

War of 1812 The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States of America and its indigenous allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in British North America, with limited participation by Spain in Florida. It bega ...

. During the war, ''President'' made several extended cruises, patrolling as far away as the

English Channel The English Channel, "The Sleeve"; nrf, la Maunche, "The Sleeve" (Cotentinais) or ( Jèrriais), (Guernésiais), "The Channel"; br, Mor Breizh, "Sea of Brittany"; cy, Môr Udd, "Lord's Sea"; kw, Mor Bretannek, "British Sea"; nl, Het Kana ...

and

Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...

; she captured the armed

schooner A schooner () is a type of sailing vessel defined by its rig: fore-and-aft rigged on all of two or more masts and, in the case of a two-masted schooner, the foremast generally being shorter than the mainmast. A common variant, the topsail schoon ...

and numerous

merchant ship A merchant ship, merchant vessel, trading vessel, or merchantman is a watercraft that transports cargo or carries passengers for hire. This is in contrast to pleasure craft, which are used for personal recreation, and naval ships, which are u ...

s. In January 1815, after having been

blockade A blockade is the act of actively preventing a country or region from receiving or sending out food, supplies, weapons, or communications, and sometimes people, by military force. A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction, which are le ...

d in New York for a year by the Royal Navy, ''President'' attempted to run the blockade, and was chased by a blockading squadron. During the chase, she was engaged and crippled by the frigate off the coast of the city. The British squadron captured ''President'' soon after, and the Royal Navy took her into service as HMS ''President'' until she was

broken up Ship-breaking (also known as ship recycling, ship demolition, ship dismantling, or ship cracking) is a type of ship disposal involving the breaking up of ships for either a source of Interchangeable parts, parts, which can be sold for re-use, ...

in 1818. ''President''s design was copied and used to build the next in 1829.

Design and construction

During the 1790s, American

merchant vessel A merchant ship, merchant vessel, trading vessel, or merchantman is a watercraft that transports cargo or carries passengers for hire. This is in contrast to pleasure craft, which are used for personal recreation, and naval ships, which are us ...

s began to fall prey to

in the

Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...

, most notably from

Algiers Algiers ( ; ar, الجزائر, al-Jazāʾir; ber, Dzayer, script=Latn; french: Alger, ) is the capital and largest city of Algeria. The city's population at the 2008 Census was 2,988,145Census 14 April 2008: Office National des Statistiques ...

. Congress's response was the Naval Act of 1794.Allen (1909), pp. 41–42. The Act provided funds for the construction of six frigates; however, it included a clause stating that construction of the ships would cease if the United States agreed to peace terms with Algiers.Beach (1986), p. 29.''An Act to provide a Naval Armament''. (1794).

Library of Congress The Library of Congress (LOC) is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the ''de facto'' national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the country. The library is ...

. Retrieved 17 February 2011.

' design was long on

keel The keel is the bottom-most longitudinal structural element on a vessel. On some sailboats, it may have a hydrodynamic and counterbalancing purpose, as well. As the laying down of the keel is the initial step in the construction of a ship, in Br ...

and narrow of

beam Beam may refer to: Streams of particles or energy *Light beam, or beam of light, a directional projection of light energy **Laser beam *Particle beam, a stream of charged or neutral particles **Charged particle beam, a spatially localized grou ...

(width) to allow for mounting very heavy guns. The design incorporated a diagonal

scantling Scantling is a measurement of prescribed size, dimensions, or cross sectional areas. Shipping In shipbuilding, the scantling refers to the collective dimensions of the framing (apart from the keel) to which planks or plates are attached to form th ...

(rib) scheme to limit hogging (warping); the ships were given extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than those of more lightly built frigates. Humphreys developed his design after realizing that the fledgling United States Navy could not match the navies of the European states for size. He therefore designed his frigates to be able to overpower other frigates, but with the speed to escape from a

ship of the line A ship of the line was a type of naval warship constructed during the Age of Sail from the 17th century to the mid-19th century. The ship of the line was designed for the naval tactic known as the line of battle, which depended on the two colu ...

.Toll (2006), pp. 49–53.Beach (1986), pp. 29–30, 33.Allen (1909), pp. 42–45.

named ''President'' in order to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution.Toll (2006), p. 61. In March 1796, before ''President''s keel could be laid down, a peace accord was announced between the United States and Algiers. Construction was suspended in accordance with the Naval Act of 1794. At the onset of the

Quasi-War The Quasi-War (french: Quasi-guerre) was an undeclared naval war fought from 1798 to 1800 between the United States and the French First Republic, primarily in the Caribbean and off the East Coast of the United States. The ability of Congres ...

with France in 1798, funds were approved to complete her construction, and her keel was laid at a shipyard in New York City. Her original naval constructor was Forman Cheeseman and the superintendent was Captain

Silas Talbot Captain Silas Talbot (January 11, 1751June 30, 1813) was an American military officer and slave trader. He served in the Continental Army and Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War, and is most famous for commanding from 1799 to ...

.Toll (2006), p. 107. Based on experience Humphreys gained during construction of ''President''s

sister ship A sister ship is a ship of the same class or of virtually identical design to another ship. Such vessels share a nearly identical hull and superstructure layout, similar size, and roughly comparable features and equipment. They often share a ...

s, and , he instructed Cheeseman to make alterations to the frigate's design. These included raising the

gun deck The term gun deck used to refer to a deck aboard a ship that was primarily used for the mounting of cannon to be fired in broadsides. The term is generally applied to decks enclosed under a roof; smaller and unrated vessels carried their guns o ...

by and moving the

main mast The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sails, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a navigation lig ...

further rearward. ''President'' was built to a length of

between perpendiculars Length between perpendiculars (often abbreviated as p/p, p.p., pp, LPP, LBP or Length BPP) is the length of a ship along the summer load line from the forward surface of the stem, or main bow perpendicular member, to the after surface of the stern ...

and a beam of . Although construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman, work on her was discontinued in 1796. Construction resumed in 1798, under Christian Bergh and naval constructor William Doughty.Canney, Donald (2001), Sailing Warships of the US Navy p. 38.

Armament

''President''s nominal rating was that of a 44-gun ship. However, she usually carried over 50 guns.Roosevelt (1883), pp. 55–56. During her service in the

, ''President'' was armed with a battery of 55 guns: thirty-two 24-pounder (10.9 kg) cannon, twenty-two 42-pounder (19 kg)

carronade A carronade is a short, smoothbore, cast-iron cannon which was used by the Royal Navy. It was first produced by the Carron Company, an ironworks in Falkirk, Scotland, and was used from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century. Its main func ...

s, and one 18-pounder (8 kg)

long gun A long gun is a category of firearms with long barrels. In small arms, a ''long gun'' or longarm is generally designed to be held by both hands and braced against the shoulder, in contrast to a handgun, which can be fired being held with a single ...

. During her Royal Navy service as HMS ''President'', she was initially rated at 50 guns, although she was at this stage armed with 60 cannons—thirty 24-pounder guns (10.9 kg) on the upper deck, twenty-eight 42-pounder (19 kg) carronades on the spar deck, plus two more 24-pounder guns on the forecastle. In February 1817, she was again re-rated, this time to 60 guns. Unlike modern Navy vessels, ships of this era had no permanent battery of guns. Guns were portable and were often exchanged between ships as situations warranted. Each commanding officer modified his vessel's armaments to his liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel aboard, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, a vessel's armament would change often during its career; records of the changes were not generally kept.Jennings (1966), pp. 17–19.

Quasi and First Barbary Wars

''President'' launched on 10 April 1800—the last of the original six frigates to do so. After her

fitting out Fitting out, or outfitting, is the process in shipbuilding that follows the float-out/launching of a vessel and precedes sea trials. It is the period when all the remaining construction of the ship is completed and readied for delivery to her o ...

, she departed for

Guadeloupe Guadeloupe (; ; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Gwadloup, ) is an archipelago and overseas department and region of France in the Caribbean. It consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, and the ...

on 5 August with Captain

Thomas Truxtun Thomas Truxtun (or Truxton) (February 17, 1755 – May 5, 1822) was an American naval officer after the Revolutionary War, when he served as a privateer, who rose to the rank of commodore in the late eighteenth century and later served in the Quas ...

in command. She conducted routine patrols during the latter part of the Quasi-War and made several recaptures of American merchant ships. Nevertheless, her service in this period was uneventful. She returned to the United States in March, after a peace treaty with France was ratified on 3 February 1801.Allen (1909), pp. 217, 221. During the Quasi-War, the United States paid

tribute A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conqu ...

to the Barbary States to ensure that they would not seize or harass American merchant ships.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 215–216. In 1801

Yusuf Karamanli Yusuf (ibn Ali) Karamanli, Caramanli or Qaramanli or al-Qaramanli (most commonly Yusuf Karamanli), (1766 – 1838) was the longest-reigning Pasha of the Karamanli dynasty of Tripolitania (in present-day Libya). He is noted for his role in the ...

Tripoli Tripoli or Tripolis may refer to: Cities and other geographic units Greece *Tripoli, Greece, the capital of Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in ...

, dissatisfied with the amount of tribute in comparison to that paid to

, demanded an immediate payment of $250,000.Allen (1905), pp. 88, 90.

Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, philosopher, and Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 18 ...

responded by sending a squadron of warships to protect American merchant ships in the Mediterranean and to pursue peace with the Barbary States.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 228.Allen (1905), p. 92. In May, Commodore

Richard Dale Richard Dale (November 6, 1756 – February 26, 1826) was an American naval officer who fought in the Continental Navy under John Barry and was first lieutenant for John Paul Jones during the naval battle off of Flamborough Head, England against ...

selected ''President'' as his

flagship A flagship is a vessel used by the commanding officer of a group of naval ships, characteristically a flag officer entitled by custom to fly a distinguishing flag. Used more loosely, it is the lead ship in a fleet of vessels, typically the fi ...

for the assignment in the Mediterranean. Dale's orders were to present a

show of force A show of force is a military operation intended to warn (such as a warning shot) or to intimidate an opponent by showcasing a capability or will to act if one is provoked. Shows of force may also be executed by police forces and other armed, non ...

off Algiers, Tripoli, and

Tunis ''Tounsi'' french: Tunisois , population_note = , population_urban = , population_metro = 2658816 , population_density_km2 = , timezone1 = CET , utc_offset1 ...

and maintain peace with promises of tribute. Dale was authorized to commence hostilities at his discretion if any Barbary State had declared war by the time of his arrival. Dale's squadron consisted of ''President'', , , and .Cooper (1856), p. 151. The squadron arrived at

Gibraltar ) , anthem = " God Save the King" , song = " Gibraltar Anthem" , image_map = Gibraltar location in Europe.svg , map_alt = Location of Gibraltar in Europe , map_caption = United Kingdom shown in pale green , mapsize = , image_map2 = Gib ...

on 1 July; ''President'' and ''Enterprise'' quickly continued to Algiers, where their presence convinced the regent to withdraw threats he had made against American merchant ships.Allen (1905), pp. 94–95.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 231. ''President'' and ''Enterprise'' subsequently made appearances at

Tunis ''Tounsi'' french: Tunisois , population_note = , population_urban = , population_metro = 2658816 , population_density_km2 = , timezone1 = CET , utc_offset1 ...

and Tripoli before ''President'' arrived at

Malta Malta ( , , ), officially the Republic of Malta ( mt, Repubblika ta' Malta ), is an island country in the Mediterranean Sea. It consists of an archipelago, between Italy and Libya, and is often considered a part of Southern Europe. It lies ...

on 16 August to replenish drinking water supplies.Allen (1905), p. 95. Blockading the harbor of Tripoli on 24 August, ''President'' captured a Greek vessel with Tripolitan soldiers aboard. Dale negotiated an exchange of prisoners that resulted in the release of several Americans held captive in Tripoli.Cooper (1856), p. 153.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 232–233. ''President'' arrived at Gibraltar on 3 September.Allen (1905), p. 98. Near

Mahón Mahón (), officially Maó (), and also written as Mahon or Port Mahon in English, is the capital and second largest city of Menorca. The city is located on the eastern coast of the island, which is part of the archipelago and autonomous communi ...

in early December, ''President'' struck a large rock while traveling at . The impact brought Dale on deck and he successfully navigated ''President'' out of danger. An inspection revealed that the impact had twisted off a short section of her keel.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 233. ''President'' remained in the Mediterranean until March 1802; she departed for the United States and arrived on 14 April.Allen (1905), pp. 99–100. Although ''President'' remained in the United States, operations against the Barbary States continued. A second squadron assembled under the command of

Richard Valentine Morris Richard Valentine Morris (March 8, 1768 – May 13, 1815) was a United States Navy officer and politician. Early life He was born on March 8, 1768, in Morrisania, then a town in Westchester County, which became in 1898 a neighborhood in the boro ...

in . Morris' poor performance resulted in his recall and subsequent dismissal from the Navy in 1803.Toll (2006), p. 173. A third squadron assembled under the command of

Edward Preble Edward Preble (August 15, 1761 – August 25, 1807) was a United States naval officer who served with great distinction during the 1st Barbary War, leading American attacks on the city of Tripoli and forming the officer corps that would la ...

in ; by July 1804, they had fought the Battle of Tripoli Harbor.Allen (1905), p. 200.

Second Barbary patrol

In April 1804, President Jefferson decided to reinforce Preble's squadron. ''President'', ''Congress'', ''Constellation'', and ''Essex'' prepared to sail as soon as possible under the direction of Commodore Samuel Barron.Allen (1905), pp. 198–199. Barron selected ''President'' as his flagship, but she required a new

bowsprit The bowsprit of a sailing vessel is a spar extending forward from the vessel's prow. The bowsprit is typically held down by a bobstay that counteracts the forces from the forestays. The word ''bowsprit'' is thought to originate from the Middle L ...

and repairs to her masts and rigging. Some two months passed before the squadron was ready to sail. They departed in late June and arrived at Gibraltar on 12 August.Allen (1905), p. 218.Toll (2006), pp. 224–227. ''President'' left Gibraltar on 16 August with ''Constellation''; the frigates paused at Malta before arriving off Tripoli on 10 September, joining ''Constitution'', , and .Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 297. Sighting three ships running the blockade of Tripoli, the squadron moved in to capture them; during the pursuit, a sudden change in wind direction caused ''President'' to collide with ''Constitution''. The collision caused serious damage to ''Constitution''s stern, bow, and

figurehead In politics, a figurehead is a person who ''de jure'' (in name or by law) appears to hold an important and often supremely powerful title or office, yet ''de facto'' (in reality) exercises little to no actual power. This usually means that they ...

. Two of the captured ships were sent to Malta with ''Constitution''; ''President'' sailed to

Syracuse, Sicily Syracuse ( ; it, Siracusa ; scn, Sarausa ), ; grc-att, wikt:Συράκουσαι, Συράκουσαι, Syrákousai, ; grc-dor, wikt:Συράκοσαι, Συράκοσαι, Syrā́kosai, ; grc-x-medieval, Συρακοῦσαι, Syrakoûs ...

, arriving on 27 August.Allen (1905), pp. 219–220.Toll (2006), pp. 250–251. When Barron arrived in the Mediterranean, his seniority of rank over Preble entitled him to assume the duties of commodore.Toll (2006), p. 250. However, soon after replacing Preble, Barron went ashore at Syracuse in poor health and became bedridden.Allen (1905), p. 220. Under command of Captain George Cox, ''President'' began routine blockade duties of Tripoli during the winter months of 1804–05. In late April 1805, ''Constitution'' captured three ships off Tripoli. ''President'' escorted them to port at Malta before rejoining ''Constitution''.Allen (1905), pp. 220–223. Barron's fragile health necessitated his resignation; he passed command to

John Rodgers John Rodgers may refer to: Military * John Rodgers (1728–1791), colonel during the Revolutionary War and owner of Rodgers Tavern, Perryville, Maryland * John Rodgers (naval officer, born 1772), U.S. naval officer during the War of 1812, first ...

in late May 1805.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 300. Barron ordered Cox to command ''Essex'', and turned ''President'' over to his brother,

James Barron James Barron (September 15, 1768 – April 21, 1851) was an officer in the United States Navy. He served in the Quasi-War and the Barbary Wars, during which he commanded a number of famous ships, including and . As commander of the frigate , h ...

, on 29 May. On 3 June, after the Battle of Derne, the U.S signed a peace treaty with Tripoli.Allen (1905), p. 250. ''President'' sailed for the United States on 13 July, carrying the ailing Barron and many sailors released from captivity in Tripoli.Allen (1905), p. 270.

''Little Belt'' Affair

In 1807, the ''Chesapeake''-''Leopard'' Affair heightened tensions between the United States and Britain. In preparation for further hostilities, Congress began authorizing naval appropriations, and ''President'' recommissioned in 1809 under the command of Commodore John Rodgers. She made routine and uneventful patrols, mainly along the United States' eastern seaboard, until 1 May 1811, when the British frigate stopped the American brig ''Spitfire'' from New York and impressed a crewman.Beach (1986), p. 69.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 312.Cooper (1856), pp. 233, 235. Rodgers received orders to pursue ''Guerriere'', and ''President'' sailed immediately from

Fort Severn Fort Severn, in present-day Annapolis, Maryland, was built in 1808 on the same site as an earlier American Revolutionary War fort of 1776. Although intended to guard Annapolis harbor from British attack during the War of 1812, it never saw ac ...

on 10 May. On 16 May, approximately northeast of

Cape Henry Cape Henry is a cape on the Atlantic shore of Virginia located in the northeast corner of Virginia Beach. It is the southern boundary of the entrance to the long estuary of the Chesapeake Bay. Across the mouth of the bay to the north is Cape Cha ...

, a lookout spotted a sail on the horizon. Closing to investigate, Rodgers determined the sail belonged to a warship, and raised

signal flag Flag signals can mean any of various methods of using flags or pennants to send signals. Flags may have individual significance as signals, or two or more flags may be manipulated so that their relative positions convey symbols. Flag signals allo ...

s to identify his ship. The unidentified ship, later learned to be —a 20-gun

sixth rate In the rating system of the Royal Navy used to categorise sailing warships, a sixth-rate was the designation for small warships mounting between 20 and 28 carriage-mounted guns on a single deck, sometimes with smaller guns on the upper works and ...

—hoisted signal flags in return, but the hoist was not understood by ''President''s crew. ''Little Belt'' sailed southward and Rodgers, believing the ship to be ''Guerriere'', pursued.Cooper (1856), pp. 235–236.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 313–314. Darkness set in before the ships were within hailing distance, and Rodgers hailed twice, only to have the same question returned to him: "What ship is that?"Toll (2006), pp. 321–322. According to Rodgers, immediately after the exchange of hails, ''Little Belt'' fired a shot that tore through ''President''s rigging. Rodgers returned fire. ''Little Belt'' promptly answered with three guns, and then a whole

broadside Broadside or broadsides may refer to: Naval * Broadside (naval), terminology for the side of a ship, the battery of cannon on one side of a warship, or their near simultaneous fire on naval warfare Printing and literature * Broadside (comic ...

. Rodgers ordered his gun crews to fire at will; several accurate broadsides heavily damaged ''Little Belt'' in return. After five minutes of firing, ''President''s crew realized their adversary was much smaller than a frigate and Rodgers ordered a cease fire. However, ''Little Belt'' fired again and ''President'' answered with more broadsides. After ''Little Belt'' became silent, ''President'' stood off and waited overnight. At dawn it was obvious that ''Little Belt'' was greatly damaged from the fight; Rodgers sent a boat over from ''President'' to offer assistance in repairing the damage. Her Captain, Arthur Bingham, acknowledged the damage; declining any help, he sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia.Beach (1986), p. 70. ''President'' had one sailor slightly wounded in the exchange, while ''Little Belt'' suffered 31 killed or wounded.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 314–315.Cooper (1856), pp. 236–237. Upon ''President''s return to port, the U.S. Navy launched an investigation into the incident. Gathering testimony from ''President''s officers and crewmen, they determined that ''Little Belt'' had fired the first shot in the encounter. In the Royal Navy investigation, Captain Bingham insisted that ''President'' had fired the first shot and continued firing for 45 minutes, rather than the five minutes Rodgers claimed. In all subsequent reports, both captains continually insisted that the other ship had fired the first shot. Reaching a stalemate, the American and British governments quietly dropped the matter.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 315–316.Cooper (1856), pp. 237–238.Toll (2006), p. 323.

War of 1812

The United States declared war against Britain on 18 June 1812. Three days later, within an hour of receiving official word of the declaration, Commodore Rodgers sailed from New York City. The commodore sailed aboard ''President'', leading a squadron consisting of ''United States'', ''Congress'', , and on a 70-day North Atlantic cruise.Roosevelt (1883), p. 73.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 322. A passing American merchant ship informed Rodgers about a fleet of British merchantmen en route to Britain from Jamaica. Rodgers and his squadron sailed in pursuit, and on 23 June they encountered what was later learned to be .Cooper (1856), pp. 244–245. ''President'' pursued the ship, and in what is recorded as the first shot of the War of 1812, Rodgers himself aimed and fired a bowchaser at ''Belvidera'', striking her rudder and penetrating the gun room.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 323.Roosevelt (1883), p. 74. Upon ''President''s fourth shot at ''Belvidera'', a cannon one deck below Rodgers burst, killing or wounding 16 sailors and throwing Rodgers to the deck with enough force to break his leg.Roosevelt (1883), p. 75.Cooper (1856), pp. 246–247. The ensuing confusion allowed ''Belvidera'' to fire her stern chasers, killing six more men aboard ''President''. Rodgers kept up the pursuit, using his bow chasers to severely damage ''Belvidera''s rigging, but his two broadsides had little effect. The crew of ''Belvidera'' quickly made repairs to the rigging. They cut loose her anchors and boats and pumped drinking water overboard to lighten her load, thereby increasing her speed. ''Belvidera'' soon gained enough speed to distance herself from ''President'', and Rodgers abandoned the pursuit. ''Belvidera'' sailed to Halifax to deliver the news that war had been declared.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 324–325.Roosevelt (1883), p. 76. ''President'' and her squadron returned to the pursuit of the Jamaican fleet, and on 1 July began to follow the trail of coconut shells and orange peels the Jamaicans had left behind them.Roosevelt (1883), p. 77. ''President'' sailed to within one

day's journey A day's journey in pre-modern literature, including the Bible, ancient geographers and ethnographers such as Herodotus, is a measurement of distance. In the Bible, it is not as precisely defined as other Biblical measurements of distance; the dis ...

of the English Channel, but never sighted the convoy. Rodgers called off the pursuit on 13 July. During their return trip to Boston, Rodgers' squadron captured seven merchant ships and recaptured one American vessel.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 325–326. After some refitting, ''President'', still under Rodgers' command, sailed on 8 October with ''Congress'', ''United States'', and ''Argus''. On 12 October, ''United States'' and ''Argus'' parted from the squadron for their own patrols.Roosevelt (1883), p. 106. On 10 October, ''President'' chased , but failed to overtake her. On 17 October ''President'' captured the British packet ship ''Swallow'', which carried a large amount of currency on board.Cooper (1856), p. 262.Roosevelt (1883), p. 107. On 31 October, ''President'' and ''Congress'' began pursuit of , which was escorting two merchant ships. The chase lasted about three hours, and in that time ''Congress'' captured the merchant ship ''Argo''. Meanwhile, ''President'' kept after ''Galatea'' and drew very close, but lost sight of her in the night. ''Congress'' and ''President'' remained together, but did not find any ships to capture during November. Returning to the United States, they passed north of Bermuda and proceeded toward the

Virginia capes The Virginia Capes are the two capes, Cape Charles to the north and Cape Henry to the south, that define the entrance to Chesapeake Bay on the eastern coast of North America. In 1610, a supply ship learned of the famine at Jamestown when it l ...

; they arrived in Boston on 31 December, having taken nine prizes. ''President'' and ''Congress'' found themselves

d there by the Royal Navy until April 1813.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 426–427. John Rodgers (naval officer, War of 1812)

On 30 April, ''President'' and ''Congress'' sailed through the blockade on their third cruise of the war. On 2 May, they pursued , but she outran them and escaped.Roosevelt (1883), p. 174. ''President'' parted company with ''Congress'' on 8 May, and Rodgers set a course along the

Gulf Stream The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension the North Atlantic Current, North Atlantic Drift, is a warm and swift Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and flows through the Straits of Florida a ...

to search for merchant ships to capture. By June, not having come across a single ship, ''President'' turned north; she put into North Bergen, Norway, on 27 June to replenish her drinking water.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 521–522. Sailing soon after, ''President'' captured two British merchant ships, which helped to replenish her stores.Roosevelt (1883), p. 175. On 10 June ''President'' captured the outward-bound Falmouth

packet Packet may refer to: * A small container or pouch ** Packet (container), a small single use container ** Cigarette packet ** Sugar packet * Network packet, a formatted unit of data carried by a packet-mode computer network * Packet radio, a form ...

''Duke of Montrose'', Captain Aaron Groub Blewett, which managed to throw her mails overboard before ''President'' could send a prize crew aboard. ''President'' made a

cartel A cartel is a group of independent market participants who collude with each other in order to improve their profits and dominate the market. Cartels are usually associations in the same sphere of business, and thus an alliance of rivals. Mos ...

of ''Duke of Montrose'', putting all of ''President''s prisoners on board and then sending her into Falmouth under the command of an American officer. When ''Duke of Montrose'' arrived at Falmouth the British Government abrogated the cartel on the grounds that they had advised the American Government that the British would not recognize agreements entered into on the high seas. Around the same time, two Royal Navy ships came into view. ''President'' set all sails to escape, and outran them in a chase lasting 80 hours. Rodgers reported that his decision to flee the ships was based on identifying them as a

and a frigate. Royal Navy records later revealed that the vessels were actually the 32-gun frigate and the 16-gun fireship .Roosevelt (1883), pp. 175–176. Spending a few days near the Irish Channel, ''President'' captured several more merchant ships. She then set a course for the United States. In late September, she encountered along the east coast of the United States. Rodgers used his signal flags to trick ''Highflyer'' into believing that ''President'' was .Hepper (1994), p. 148. Lieut. George Hutchinson, ''Highflyer''s captain, came aboard ''President'' only to discover he had walked into a trap; ''President'' captured ''Highflyer'' without a shot being fired. ''President''s long cruise netted her 11 merchant ships, in addition to ''Highflyer''.Cooper (1856), p. 332.Roosevelt (1883), pp. 176–177. American naval battles; (1837) (14764138665)

American naval battles; (1837) (14764138665)

On 4 December 1813, ''President'' sailed from Providence, Rhode Island. On the 25th, she encountered two frigates in the dark, one of which fired at her. Rodgers believed the ships to be British, but they were two French frigates, and .Roosevelt (1883), p. 217. Afterward, Rodgers headed toward Barbados for an eight-week cruise in the

West Indies The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greater A ...

, reportedly making three small captures, among them the British

s ''Wanderer'', which she captured on 4 January 1814 in the

Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe ...

at approximately and sank, and ''Edward'', which she captured and sank on 9 January. Returning to New York City on 18 February 1814, ''President'' encountered HMS ''Loire'', which turned to escape once the latter's crew realized ''President'' was a 44-gun frigate.Roosevelt (1883), p. 286.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 541. ''President'' remained in New York for the duration of 1814 due to the harbor's blockade by a British squadron consisting of , , ''Pomone'', and ''Tenedos''.Roosevelt (1883), p. 401.

Capture

Stephen Decatur Stephen Decatur Jr. (; January 5, 1779 – March 22, 1820) was an American naval officer and commodore. He was born on the eastern shore of Maryland in Worcester County. His father, Stephen Decatur Sr., was a commodore in the Unite ...

assumed command of ''President'' in December 1814, planning a cruise to the West Indies to prey on British shipping. In mid-January 1815, a snowy

gale A gale is a strong wind; the word is typically used as a descriptor in nautical contexts. The U.S. National Weather Service defines a gale as sustained surface winds moving at a speed of between 34 and 47 knots (, or ).New York Harbor New York Harbor is at the mouth of the Hudson River where it empties into New York Bay near the East River tidal estuary, and then into the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of the United States. It is one of the largest natural harbors in t ...

, giving Decatur the opportunity to put to sea. On the evening of 14 January, ''President'' headed out of the harbor but ran aground, the result of harbor pilots incorrectly marking a safe passage. Stranded on the sand bar, ''President'' lifted and dropped with the incoming tide. Within two hours her hull had been damaged, her timbers twisted, and masts sprung. Damage to her keel caused the ship to hog and sag. Decatur was finally able to float ''President'' off the

bar Bar or BAR may refer to: Food and drink * Bar (establishment), selling alcoholic beverages * Candy bar * Chocolate bar Science and technology * Bar (river morphology), a deposit of sediment * Bar (tropical cyclone), a layer of cloud * Bar (u ...

and, assessing the damage, he decided to return to New York for repairs; however, the wind direction was not favorable and ''President'' was forced to head out to sea.Roosevelt (1883), pp. 401–402.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 641.Cooper (1856), p. 429. Unaware of the exact location of the blockading squadron, Decatur set a course to avoid them and seek a safe port, but approximately two hours later the squadron's sails were spotted on the horizon. ''President'' changed course to outrun them, but the damage she suffered the night before had significantly reduced her speed.Cooper (1856), p. 430. Attempting to gain speed, Decatur ordered expendable cargo thrown overboard; by late afternoon of 15 January, HMS ''Endymion'' under Captain Henry Hope came alongside and proceeded to fire broadsides.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 641–642.Roosevelt (1883), p. 402. Decatur planned to bring ''President'' in close to ''Endymion'', whereby ''President''s crew could board and capture the opposing ship and sail her to New York. (''President'' would be

scuttled Scuttling is the deliberate sinking of a ship. Scuttling may be performed to dispose of an abandoned, old, or captured vessel; to prevent the vessel from becoming a navigation hazard; as an act of self-destruction to prevent the ship from being ...

to prevent her capture).Cooper (1856), p. 431.Toll (2006), p. 443. Making several attempts to close on ''Endymion'', Decatur discovered that ''President''s damage limited her maneuverability, allowing ''Endymion'' to anticipate, and draw away from, positions favorable for boarding. Faced with this new dilemma, Decatur ordered bar and chain shot fired to disable ''Endymion''s sails and rigging, the idea being to shake his pursuer and allow ''President'' to proceed to a safe port without being followed. At noon, ''Endymion'', being the much better sailer, was close-hauled, outpacing her squadron and leaving them behind. At 2 pm, she gained on ''President'' and took position on the American ship's quarter, shooting into ''President'' as she tried to escape. ''Endymion'' was able to rake ''President'' three times and did considerable damage to her; by contrast, ''President'' primarily directed her fire at ''Endymion's''

rigging Rigging comprises the system of ropes, cables and chains, which support a sailing ship or sail boat's masts—''standing rigging'', including shrouds and stays—and which adjust the position of the vessel's sails and spars to which they are ...

in order to slow her down during the two-hour engagement.Roosevelt (1883), p. 403. Finally at 7:58 pm, ''President'' ceased fire and hoisted a light in her rigging, indicating that she had surrendered. ''Endymion'' ceased firing on the defeated American ship but did not board to take possession of her prize, due to a lack of undamaged boats. ''Endymion''s foresails had been damaged in the engagement and while she hove to for repairs, Decatur took advantage of the situation and, despite having struck, made off to escape at 8:30 pm; ''Endymion'', hastily completed repairs and resumed the chase at 8:52 pm. ''President'' drew away while her crew made hurried repairs of their own. Within two hours, one of her lookouts spotted the remainder of the enemy squadron drawing near. ''President'' continued her escape attempt, but by nightfall HMS ''Pomone'' and ''Tenedos'' had caught up and began firing broadsides. Realizing his situation, Decatur surrendered ''President'' again, just before midnight.Cooper (1856), p. 432.Roosevelt (1883), p. 404.

As HMS ''President''

Now in possession of the Royal Navy, ''President'' and her crew were ordered to proceed to

Bermuda ) , anthem = "God Save the King" , song_type = National song , song = " Hail to Bermuda" , image_map = , map_caption = , image_map2 = , mapsize2 = , map_caption2 = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = , e ...

with ''Endymion''. During the journey, they encountered a dangerous gale. The storm destroyed ''President''s masts and strained ''Endymion''s timbers so badly that all the upper-deck guns were thrown overboard to prevent her from sinking.Roosevelt (1883), p. 405. Decatur and his crew were brutally beaten, tortured and starved while being held prisoner in Bermuda. The

, Garness, master, brought 400 prisoners from ''President'' from Bermuda back to New York. On 7 April 1815 ''Clarendon'' grounded at

Sandy Hook Sandy Hook is a barrier spit in Middletown Township, Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States. The barrier spit, approximately in length and varying from wide, is located at the north end of the Jersey Shore. It encloses the southern en ...

but crew, passengers, and prisoners were all saved.Multiple News Items. ''Providence Patriot, Columbian Phenix'' (Providence, Rhode Island), 15 April 1815; Issue 14. Upon the prisoners' return to the United States, a U.S. Navy court martial board acquitted Decatur, his officers, and his men of any wrongdoing in the surrender of ''President''.Toll (2006), p. 445.Cooper (1856), p. 433. ''President'' and ''Endymion'' continued to England, arriving at

Spithead Spithead is an area of the Solent and a roadstead off Gilkicker Point in Hampshire, England. It is protected from all winds except those from the southeast. It receives its name from the Spit, a sandbank stretching south from the Hampshire ...

on 28 March. ''President'' was commissioned into the Royal Navy under the name HMS ''President''. Her initial rating was set at 50 guns, although she was at this stage armed with 60 cannons—thirty 24-pounders (10.9 kg) on the upper deck, twenty-eight 42-pounder (19 kg) carronades on the spar deck, plus two more 24-pounder guns on the forecastle. In February 1817 she was again re-rated, this time to 60 guns. HMS President in South West India Dock, London, ca

HMS President in South West India Dock, London, ca

In March 1818 she was considered for refitting. A

drydock A dry dock (sometimes drydock or dry-dock) is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in, then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform. Dry docks are used for the construction, maintenance, ...

inspection revealed that the majority of her timber was defective or rotten and she was broken up at Portsmouth in June. ''President''s design was copied and used to build in 1829, although this was reportedly more of a political maneuver than a testament to the design. The Royal Navy wished to retain the name and likeness of the American ship on their register as a reminder to the United States and other nations of the capture.Gardiner (2000), pp. 97, 140–141.Beach (1986), p. 135.

Notes and citations

Notes

Citations

References

* * * * * * Dudley, William S. (1985) ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History''. (Government Printing Office). * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:President (1800), USS Sailing frigates of the United States Navy War of 1812 ships of the United States Vessels captured from the United States Navy Barbary Wars American ships Ships built in New York City 1800 ships