Turkish delight or lokum ( ota, لوقوم) is a family of
confections
Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that are rich in sugar and carbohydrates. Exact definitions are difficult. In general, however, confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categorie ...
based on a
gel
A gel is a semi-solid that can have properties ranging from soft and weak to hard and tough. Gels are defined as a substantially dilute cross-linked system, which exhibits no flow when in the steady-state, although the liquid phase may still di ...
of
starch
Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants for energy storage. Worldwide, it is the most common carbohydrate in human die ...
and
sugar
Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or do ...
. Premium varieties consist largely of chopped dates, pistachios, hazelnuts or walnuts bound by the gel; traditional varieties are often flavored with
rosewater,
mastic gum
Mastic ( el, Μαστίχα) is a resin obtained from the mastic tree (''Pistacia lentiscus''). It is also known as tears of Chios, being traditionally produced on the island Chios, and, like other natural resins, is produced in "tears" or dropl ...
,
bergamot orange, or
lemon. The confection is often packaged and eaten in small cubes dusted with
icing sugar,
copra
Copra (from ) is the dried, white flesh of the coconut from which coconut oil is extracted. Traditionally, the coconuts are sun-dried, especially for export, before the oil, also known as copra oil, is pressed out. The oil extracted from co ...
, or powdered
cream of tartar to prevent clinging. Other common flavors include
cinnamon and
mint
MiNT is Now TOS (MiNT) is a free software alternative operating system kernel for the Atari ST system and its successors. It is a multi-tasking alternative to TOS and MagiC. Together with the free system components fVDI device drivers, XaAE ...
. In the production process,
soapwort may be used as an
emulsifying
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or unblendable) owing to liquid-liquid phase separation. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although ...
additive.
The origin of Turkish delight is not precisely known, but the confection is known to have been produced in
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula ...
and
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
(
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
) as early as the late 18th century.
History
The exact origin of these sweets is yet to be definitively determined; however, the
Turkish word comes from the
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
. In the
Arab world
The Arab world ( ar, اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, refers to a vast group of countries, mainly located in Western A ...
, Turkish delights are called () which means 'throat comfort'.
According to the company, Bekir
Efendi, named after performing the
Hajj
The Hajj (; ar, حَجّ '; sometimes also spelled Hadj, Hadji or Haj in English) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried o ...
, moved to
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
from his hometown
Kastamonu
Kastamonu is the capital district of the Kastamonu Province, Turkey. According to the 2000 census, population of the district is 102,059 of which 64,606 live in the urban center of Kastamonu. (Population of the urban center in 2010 is 91,012.) The ...
and opened his confectionery shop in the district of in 1777. He produced various kinds of candies and , later including a unique form of made with starch and sugar. The family business, now in its fifth generation, still operates under the founder's name.
Tim Richardson, a historian of sweets, has questioned the popular attribution of as the inventor of Turkish delight, writing that "specific names and dates are often erroneously associated with the invention of particular sweets, not least for commercial reasons". Similar Arab and
Persian recipes, including the use of starch and sugar, predate Bekir by several centuries.
The
Oxford Companion to Food states that although Bekir is often credited with the invention, there is no hard evidence for it.
Turkish delight is often sold in
hexagonal boxes.
Name
The Turkish names and are derived from the Arabic word () and its plural () meaning 'morsel' and 'mouthful' and the alternative
Ottoman Turkish name, ,
[James Redhouse, ''A Turkish and English Dictionary'', 1856, p.707.] was an Arabic formulation, (), meaning 'comfort of the throat', which remains the name in formal Arabic. In
Libya
Libya (; ar, ليبيا, Lībiyā), officially the State of Libya ( ar, دولة ليبيا, Dawlat Lībiyā), is a country in the Maghreb region in North Africa. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Suda ...
,
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the Ara ...
,
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
and
Tunisia
)
, image_map = Tunisia location (orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption = Location of Tunisia in northern Africa
, image_map2 =
, capital = Tunis
, largest_city = capital
, ...
it is known as , while in
Kuwait
Kuwait (; ar, الكويت ', or ), officially the State of Kuwait ( ar, دولة الكويت '), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated in the northern edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to Iraq–Ku ...
it is called ; in
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
it is called ( ) or , and in
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, while Cyprus lie ...
and
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
(). Its name in various Eastern European languages comes from Ottoman Turkish () or . Its name in
Greek, () shares a similar etymology with the modern Turkish and it is marketed as ''Greek Delight''. In
Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ...
, where the dessert has
protected geographical indication (PGI), it is also marketed as ''Cyprus Delight''. In
Armenian it is called (). It is läoma ܠܥܡܐ in
Assyrian
Assyrian may refer to:
* Assyrian people, the indigenous ethnic group of Mesopotamia.
* Assyria, a major Mesopotamian kingdom and empire.
** Early Assyrian Period
** Old Assyrian Period
** Middle Assyrian Empire
** Neo-Assyrian Empire
* Assyri ...
. Its name in
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and ...
and
Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
is , and derives from a very old confusion of the two names found already in Ottoman Turkish;
indeed this mixed name can also be found in
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula ...
today. Its name in
Serbo-Croatian
Serbo-Croatian () – also called Serbo-Croat (), Serbo-Croat-Bosnian (SCB), Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian (BCS), and Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian (BCMS) – is a South Slavic language and the primary language of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia an ...
is (), a reduced form of the same name. In
Persian, it is called (). In the
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...
, a variant of it is known as ''Karachi halwa'' or ''Bombay halwa''.
In English, it was formerly alternatively known as ''Lumps of Delight''.
Around the world
Europe
Bulgaria
In Bulgarian, Turkish Delight is known as lokum (локум) and enjoys some popularity. While it presumably came with the Ottoman Empire, it may have arrived earlier. Bulgaria produces its own brands of lokum, which may be plain or spiced with rose petals, white walnuts, or "endreshe".
Greece
In Greece, Turkish Delight, known as ''loukoumi''
�ουκούμιhas been a very popular delicacy since the 19th century, famously produced in the city of
Patras,
Patrina loukoumia, as well as on the island of
Syros and the northern Greek cities
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...
,
Serres and
Komotini
Komotini ( el, Κομοτηνή, tr, Gümülcine, bg, Комотини) is a city in the region of East Macedonia and Thrace, northeastern Greece. It is the capital of the Rhodope. It was the administrative centre of the Rhodope-Evros super-p ...
but elsewhere as well. Loukoumi is a common traditional treat, routinely served instead of biscuits along with coffee. In addition to the common rosewater and bergamot varieties,
Mastic-flavored loukoumi is available and very popular. Another sweet, similar to loukoumi, that is made exclusively in the town of Serres, is
Akanés
Akanes () is a Greek sweet similar to loukoumi, only that it is flavoured with fresh goatsmilk butter rather than fruit essences. It is made exclusively in the town of Serres in Northern Greece. The name ''akanes'' dates back to the time of Ottom ...
.
Romania and Moldova
The Romanian word to describe this confection is ''rahat'', an abbreviation of the Arabic ''rahat ul-holkum''. However, in the Romanian language, the word ''rahat'' took a pejorative sense, in this case a euphemism that translates as ''crap''. According to linguist
Lazăr Șăineanu
Lazăr Șăineanu (, also spelled Șeineanu, born Eliezer Schein;Leopold, p.383, 417 Francisized Lazare Sainéan, , Alexandru Mușina"Țara turcită", in ''România Literară'', Nr. 19/2003 or Sainéanu; April 23, 1859 – May 11, 1934) was a R ...
, Turkish words which entered the Romanian language in the seventeenth century and eighteenth century became mostly obsolete and acquired a pejorative or ironic sense. Politically and socially, this weakened the influence of Ottoman society, and parts of the
Ottoman Turkish language
Ottoman Turkish ( ota, لِسانِ عُثمانى, Lisân-ı Osmânî, ; tr, Osmanlı Türkçesi) was the standardized register of the Turkish language used by the citizens of the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed exte ...
which had not had time to take root in the Romanian language took a touch of irony and became a mine for humorous literature. Rahat is eaten as is or is added in many Romanian cakes called ''
cornulețe
''Cornulețe'' are Romanian and Moldovan pastries aromatised with vanilla or rum extract/essence, as well as lemon rind, and stuffed with Turkish delight, jam, chocolate, cinnamon sugar, walnuts, and/or raisins, with the shape representing a c ...
'', ''
cozonac'' or .
Albania and in some parts of former Yugoslavia
In the countries of former
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia (; sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Jugoslavija, Југославија ; sl, Jugoslavija ; mk, Југославија ;; rup, Iugoslavia; hu, Jugoszlávia; rue, label= Pannonian Rusyn, Югославия, translit=Juhoslavij ...
that were under Ottomans (
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia ( Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Basin and the Balkans. It shares land borders with Hu ...
,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and ...
,
Montenegro
)
, image_map = Europe-Montenegro.svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Podgorica
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, official_languages = ...
,
North Macedonia
North Macedonia, ; sq, Maqedonia e Veriut, (Macedonia before February 2019), officially the Republic of North Macedonia,, is a country in Southeast Europe. It gained independence in 1991 as one of the successor states of Socialist Feder ...
, and
Kosovo
Kosovo ( sq, Kosova or ; sr-Cyrl, Косово ), officially the Republic of Kosovo ( sq, Republika e Kosovës, links=no; sr, Република Косово, Republika Kosovo, links=no), is a international recognition of Kosovo, partiall ...
) as well as in
Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea and share ...
, Turkish delight is known as ''rahat-lokum'', ''ratluk'' or ''lokum/llokum''. It was introduced during Ottoman rule of the Balkans and has remained popular. Today it is commonly consumed with coffee. Rose and walnut are the most common flavorings.
Ireland, the United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries
Fry's Turkish Delight
Fry's Turkish Delight is a chocolate bar made by Cadbury. It was launched in the UK in 1914 by the Bristol-based chocolate manufacturer J. S. Fry & Sons and consists of a rose-flavoured Turkish delight surrounded by milk chocolate. The Fry's iden ...
is marketed by
Cadbury
Cadbury, formerly Cadbury's and Cadbury Schweppes, is a British multinational confectionery company fully owned by Mondelez International (originally Kraft Foods) since 2010. It is the second largest confectionery brand in the world after Mar ...
in the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and ...
,
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George's Channel. Ireland is the s ...
,
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. With an area of , Australia is the largest country by ...
,
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring coun ...
,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by to ...
and
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island coun ...
. It is rosewater-flavoured, and covered on all sides in milk chocolate. UK production controversially moved to Poland in 2010.
Hadji Bey was an Armenian emigrant to Ireland who in 1902 set up a company – still in existence – to produce rahat lokoum for the Irish and later UK markets.
North America
The Nory Candy company in the
Greater Los Angeles
Greater Los Angeles is the second-largest metropolitan region in the United States with a population of 18.5 million in 2021, encompassing five counties in Southern California extending from Ventura County in the west to San Bernardino Co ...
area has been producing Turkish Delights or Rahat Locum since 1964. The company produces different fruit and exotic flavors including rose and licorice as well a variety which include nuts such as almonds, pistachios, and walnuts.
In 1930, two Armenian immigrants, Armen Tertsagian and Mark Balaban, founded
Liberty Orchards of
Cashmere, Washington, and began manufacturing
Aplets (apple and walnut locoum) and Cotlets (apricot and walnut locoum). In 1984, they added the medley-flavored Fruit Delights line in strawberry, raspberry, orange, blueberry, peach, cranberry, and pineapple assortments. Although all of these confections are marketed under American-style brand names, they are described on product packaging as "Locoum".
In Canada, the
Big Turk chocolate bar made by
Nestlé
Nestlé S.A. (; ; ) is a Switzerland, Swiss multinational food and drink processing conglomerate corporation headquartered in Vevey, Vaud, Switzerland. It is the largest publicly held food company in the world, measured by revenue and other me ...
consists of dark magenta Turkish Delight coated in milk chocolate.
Brazil
The confection is known in Brazil as ''Manjar Turco'', ''Delícia Turca'', ''Bala de Goma
Síria'' or ''Bala de Goma
Árabe''. As with most
Middle Eastern dishes, it came with the Levantine
Arab diaspora
Arab diaspora (also known as MENA diaspora, as a short version for the Middle East and North Africa diaspora) refers to descendants of the Arab emigrants who, voluntarily or as refugees, emigrated from their native lands to non-Arab countries ...
to Latin America.
Philippines
The confection arrived in the Philippines through international trade, likely in the 19th or 20th century. The exact date is unknown. Its popularity, however, only became evident by the 1980's and the 1990's. The Filipino version of the sweet is called ''chewy gulaman''. Gulaman translates to Filipino jelly. Traditionally, ''chewy gulaman'' is made from various types of sea plants thriving in the tropical Philippine islands. Once the jelly is formed and has a chewy consistency, it is then covered with either indigenous starch or Philippine coconut shavings to prevent clinging. In recent years, sugar is also used as a covering substitute. Most mass-produced ''chewy gulaman'' are nowadays covered in sugar, instead of the traditional coverings.
India/Pakistan
In Karachi, now in Pakistan, the "Karachi halwa" was made with corn flour and ghee and became quite popular. It is said to have been developed by
Chandu Halwai
Punjabi Chandu Halwai Karachiwala is a halwai shop in Mumbai. It was originally established in Karachi in 1896 by Chandulal Bahl, a Punjabi Khatri.
Its owners moved to Mumbai after the partition of India. Karachi halwa, also known as Bombay hal ...
which later relocated to Bombay (Mumbai) after the partition in 1947. Some of the confectioners termed it Bombay Halwa to avoid its connection with a Pakistani city. In the year 1896, a confectioner Giridhar Mavji who ran a shop Joshi Budhakaka Mahim Halwawala attempted to replace the starch with wheat flour and thus invented Mahim halwa which consists of flat sheets.
Protected geographical indication
Despite its worldwide popularity and production in several countries, at present, the only
protected geographical indication (PGI) for such a product is the name Λουκούμι Γεροσκήπου (Loukoumi Geroskipou) for Turkish delight made in
Yeroskipou,
Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ...
.
Related products
Turkish delight was an early precursor to the
jelly bean, inspiring its gummy interior.
There are gourmand perfumes that are based upon Turkish Delight, such as "Loukhoum" by Ava Luxe, "Loukhoum" by Keiko Mecheri, and "Rahät Loukoum" by
Serge Lutens
Serge Lutens (born 14 March 1942 in Lille, France) is a French fashion designer, perfume creator, photographer, filmmaker and hair stylist.
Career
At fourteen, Lutens was taken on as an apprentice by a hair salon in Lille, a period which he d ...
.
In popular culture
Turkish delight figures in the climax of
Dorothy Sayers
Dorothy Leigh Sayers (; 13 June 1893 – 17 December 1957) was an English crime writer and poet. She was also a student of classical and modern languages.
She is best known for her mysteries, a series of novels and short stories set between th ...
' 1930 mystery novel
Strong Poison, part of her
Lord Peter Wimsey series. Wimsey convinces the murderer—who developed immunity by consuming arsenic over a long period of time—that the turkish delight he devoured at dinner was smothered in powdered arsenic. The murderer makes no attempt to seek help but flees into the arms of the police.
Turkish delight features as the enchanted confection the
White Witch uses to gain the loyalty of
Edmund Pevensie in ''
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' (1950) by
C. S. Lewis
Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer and Anglican lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Oxford University (Magdalen College, 1925–1954) and Cambridge Univer ...
. Sales of Turkish delight rose following the theatrical release of the 2005 film ''
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''.
In ''
The Falcon and the Winter Soldier'' episode "The Whole World is Watching",
Baron Zemo similarly uses Turkish delight (which he claims is "irresistible" and was his deceased son's favorite candy) to gain information from a
Latvian girl.
The
''Mickey Mouse'' TV series episode "Turkish Delights" takes place in Turkey, where Mickey, Donald, and Goofy compete selling the confections at the Grand Bazaar.
The webcomic ''
xkcd'' comic number 1980 "Turkish Delight" revolves around the author's heightened expectations of and subsequent disappointment in the taste of Turkish delight influenced by ''The Chronicles of Narnia''.
See also
*
Big Turk
*
Botan Rice Candy,
Gyūhi
is a form of wagashi (traditional Japanese sweet). Gyūhi is a softer variety of mochi
is a Japanese rice cake made of , a short-grain japonica glutinous rice, and sometimes other ingredients such as water, sugar, and cornstarch. The ri ...
*
Dodol
*
Fry's Turkish Delight
Fry's Turkish Delight is a chocolate bar made by Cadbury. It was launched in the UK in 1914 by the Bristol-based chocolate manufacturer J. S. Fry & Sons and consists of a rose-flavoured Turkish delight surrounded by milk chocolate. The Fry's iden ...
*
Gumdrop
*
Hadji Bey
*
Halva
*
Masghati
Masghati (in Persian:مسقطی) is a soft and transparent confection in Iran[Souvenirs]
Untold Iran mad ...
*
Mochi
*
Turkish cuisine
Turkish cuisine () is the cuisine of Turkey and the Turkish diaspora. It is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine, which can be described as a fusion and refinement of Mediterranean, Balkan, Middle Eastern, Central Asian and Eastern Eur ...
*
Marron glacé
References
External links
{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Delight
Confectionery
Arab desserts
Turkish desserts
Lebanese desserts
Iranian desserts
Iraqi cuisine
Israeli desserts
Kurdish cuisine
Middle Eastern cuisine
Greek desserts
Cypriot cuisine
Balkan cuisine
Bulgarian desserts
Romanian sweets
Tabriz cuisine
Macedonian cuisine
Belarusian cuisine
Albanian cuisine