The Tungusic languages (also known as Manchu-Tungus and Tungus) form a

language family A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in h ...

spoken in Eastern

Siberia Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part ...

and

Manchuria Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...

Tungusic peoples Tungusic peoples are an ethno-linguistic group formed by the speakers of Tungusic languages (or Manchu–Tungus languages). They are native to Siberia and Northeast Asia. The Tungusic phylum is divided into two main branches, northern (Evenic ...

. Many Tungusic languages are endangered. There are approximately 75,000 native speakers of the dozen living languages of the Tungusic language family. Some linguists consider Tungusic to be part of the controversial Altaic language family, along with Turkic, Mongolic, and sometimes

Koreanic Koreanic is a small language family consisting of the Korean and Jeju languages. The latter is often described as a dialect of Korean, but is distinct enough to be considered a separate language. Alexander Vovin suggests that the Yukjin dialec ...

and Japonic. The term "Tungusic" is from an

exonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group ...

for the Evenk people (Ewenki) used by the

Yakuts The Yakuts, or the Sakha ( sah, саха, ; , ), are a Turkic ethnic group who mainly live in the Republic of Sakha in the Russian Federation, with some extending to the Amur, Magadan, Sakhalin regions, and the Taymyr and Evenk Districts ...

("tongus"). It was borrowed into Russian as "тунгус", and ultimately transliterated into English as "Tungus".

Classification

Linguists working on Tungusic have proposed a number of different classifications based on different criteria, including morphological, lexical, and phonological characteristics. Some scholars have criticized the tree-based model of Tungusic classification, arguing the long history of contact among the Tungusic languages makes them better treated as a

dialect continuum A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of language varieties spoken across some geographical area such that neighboring varieties are mutually intelligible, but the differences accumulate over distance so that widely separated vari ...

The main classification is into a northern branch and a southern branch (Georg 2004), although the two branches have no clear division and the classification of intermediate groups is debatable. Four mid-level subgroups are recognized by Hölzl (2018), namely Ewenic, Udegheic, Nanaic, and Jurchenic. Alexander Vovin notes that Manchu and

Jurchen Jurchen may refer to: * Jurchen people, Tungusic people who inhabited the region of Manchuria until the 17th century ** Haixi Jurchens, a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty ** Jianzhou Jurchens, a grouping of ...

are aberrant languages within South Tungusic but nevertheless still belong in it, and that this aberrancy is perhaps due to influences from the Para-Mongolic

Khitan language Khitan or Kitan ( in large script or in small, ''Khitai''; , ''Qìdānyǔ''), also known as Liao, is a now-extinct language once spoken in Northeast Asia by the Khitan people (4th to 13th century). It was the official language of the Liao E ...

, from Old Korean, and perhaps also from Chukotko-Kamchatkan and unknown languages of uncertain linguistic affiliation. ;Southern Tungusic (Jurchenic-Nanaic) * (Southwestern Tungusic) ("Manchu group") **

(extinct, developed into Manchu in the 17th century) *** Manchu: speakers originated from the Sungari Ula River area (they founded the Jin and

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

or Manchu dynasties of

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...

) *** Xibe: spoken in

Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County (; Xibe: , Cabcal Sibe beye dasangga siyan, also transliterated as ''Chapchal'', ug, چاپچال شىبە ئاپتونوم يېزىسى; kk, شاپشال سىبە اۆتونوميالى اۋدانى) in Ili Kazak ...

, Sinkiang/

Xinjiang Xinjiang, SASM/GNC: ''Xinjang''; zh, c=, p=Xīnjiāng; formerly romanized as Sinkiang (, ), officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwes ...

. (Developed separately since 1764 from a

military garrison) ** Chinese Kyakala (恰喀拉Mu, Yejun 穆晔骏. 1987: Balayu 巴拉语. Manyu yanjiu 满语研究 2. 2‒31, 128.) **

Bala Bala may refer to: Places India * Bala, India, a village in Allahabad, India * Bala, Ahor, a village in the Jalore district of Rajasthan * Bala, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India Romania * Bala, Mehedinți, a commune in Mehedin� ...

(巴拉) ** (阿勒楚喀) * Nanaic (Southeastern Tungusic) ("Nanai group" / "Amur group") ** Nanai (Gold, Goldi, Hezhen) (Akani, Birar, Samagir) *** ''Upper Amur'' **** ''Right-bank Amur'' **** ''Sungari'' **** ''Bikin'' ''(Ussuri)'' *** ''Central Amur'' **** ''Sakachi-Alyan'' **** ''Naykhin'' ''(basis of standard Nanai but not identical)'' **** ''Dzhuen'' *** ''Lower Amur'' **** ''Bolon'' **** ''Ekon'' **** ''Gorin'' ** Orok ( Uilta) *** ''Northern (East Sakhalin)'' *** ''Southern (South Sakhalin, Poronaysky)'' ** Ulch / Olcha ;Transitional Southern-Northern Tungus (Udegheic) * Udegheic (Oroch–Udege; strongly influenced by Southern Tungusic) ** Oroch †? ***''Tumninsky dialect'' †''?'' ***''Khadinsky dialect'' †''?'' ***''Hungarisky dialect'' †''?'' ** Udege / Udihe ;Northern Tungusic () * Ewenic **

Even Even may refer to: General * Even (given name), a Norwegian male personal name * Even (surname) * Even (people), an ethnic group from Siberia and Russian Far East **Even language, a language spoken by the Evens * Odd and Even, a solitaire game wh ...

( Lamut) (in eastern

) *** ''Arman'' *** ''Indigirka'' *** ''Kamchatka'' *** ''Kolyma-Omolon'' *** ''Okhotsk'' *** ''Ola'' *** ''Tompon'' *** ''Upper Kolyma'' *** ''Sakkyryr'' *** ''Lamunkhin'' ** Evenki *** Evenki (obsolete: Tungus), spoken by Evenks in central

and

**** ''

Solon Solon ( grc-gre, Σόλων; BC) was an Athenian statesman, constitutional lawmaker and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in Archaic Athens.Aristotle ''Politic ...

'' ''(Solon Ewenki)'' ***** ''Hihue/Hoy'' ''(basis of the standard, but not identical)'' ***** ''Haila’er'' ***** ''Aoluguya'' ''(Olguya)'' ***** ''Chenba’erhu'' ''(Old Bargu)'' ***** ''Morigele'' ''(Mergel)'' **** ''Siberian Ewenki'' / ''Ewenki of Siberia'' ***** ''Northern (spirant)'' ****** ''Ilimpeya'' (''subdialects'': ''Ilimpeya'', ''Agata and Bol'shoi'', ''Porog'', ''Tura'', ''Tutonchany'', ''Dudinka/Khantai'') ****** ''Yerbogachen'' (''subdialects:'' ''Yerbogachen'', ''Nakanno'') ***** ''Southern'' ''(sibilant)'' ****** ''Hushing'' ******* ''Sym'' (''subdialects:'' ''Tokma/Upper Nepa'', ''Upper Lena/Kachug'', ''Angara'') ******* ''Northern Baikal'' (''subdialects:'' ''Northern Baikal'', ''Upper Lena'') ****** ''Hissing'' ******* ''Stony Tunguska'' (''subdialects:'' ''Vanavara'', ''Kuyumba'', ''Poligus'', ''Surinda'', ''Taimura/Chirinda'', ''Uchami'', ''Chemdal'sk'') ******* ''Nepa'' (''subdialects:'' ''Nepa'', ''Kirensk'') ******* ''Vitim-Nercha/Baunt-Talocha'' (''subdialects:'' '' Baunt'', ''Talocha'', ''Tungukochan'', ''Nercha'') ***** ''Eastern'' ''(sibilant-spirant)'' ****** ''Vitim-Olyokma'' (''subdialects:'' ''Barguzin'', ''Vitim/ Kalar'', '' Olyokma'', '' Tungir'', '' Tokko'') ****** ''Upper Aldan'' (''subdialects:'' ''Aldan'', ''Upper Amur'', ''Amga'', ''Dzheltulak'', ''

Timpton , image = Поездка в Нерюнгринский район, 2017 (365).jpg , image_caption = View of a bend in the river , source1_location = Stanovoy Range , source1_coordinates = , source1_elevation = ...

'', ''Tommot'', ''Khingan'', ''Chul'man'', ''Chul'man-Gilyui'') ****** ''Uchur-Zeya'' (''subdialects:'' ''Uchur'', ''Zeya'') ****** ''Selemdzha-Bureya-Urmi'' (''subdialects:'' ''Selemdzha'', ''Bureya'', ''Urmi'') ****** ''Ayan-Mai'' (''subdialects:'' ''Ayan'', ''Aim'', ''Mai'', ''Nel'kan'', ''Totti'') ****** ''Tugur-Chumikan'' (''subdialects:'' ''Tugur'', ''Chumikan'') ****** ''Sakhalin'' ''(no subdialects)'' ***

Negidal Negidals (; Negidal: ''элькан бэйэнин'', ''elkan bayenin'', "local people") are a people in the Khabarovsk Krai in Russia, who live along the Amgun River and Amur River. The ethnonym "Negidal" is a Russification of the Ewenki te ...

**** ''Lower Negidal'' † **** ''Upper Negidal'' *** Oroqen **** ''Gankui'' ''(basis of standard Oroqen but not identical)'' **** ''Selpechen'' **** ''Kumarchen'' **** ''Selpechen'' **** ''Orochen'' *** Kili (previously thought to be a dialect of Nanai)

Zimin (2020)

Zimin (2020) proposes a ''Tungus–Manchu'' family with two primary branches, namely the Jurchenic and Tungusic (proper) branches. ;Tungus–Manchu *Jurchenic **Xi Yeren Jurchen ***Bala ***Alchuka **Jurchen proper ***Haixi Jurchen ****spoken Sibo ****Guanwai *****Ilanbou *****Tailai *****Aigun *****Niŋgutan, Girinese ***Jianzhou Jurchen ****Hebei, Mukdenese Manchu ****written Manchu; Sibo *Tungusic (proper) **Nanic ***Uilta ***Nanai ****Nani ****Lower Amur Nanai ****Ussuri–Bikin Nanai ****Middle Amur Nanai **Oroch–Ewonic ***Ewonic ****Southern ****Northern ****Eastern ***Oroch–Udyhe ****Oroch ****Kur–Urmi Udyhe ****Siȟotə–Aliň Udyhe

History

Proto-Tungusic

Some linguists estimate the divergence of the Tungusic languages from a common ancestor spoken somewhere in Eastern Manchuria around 500 BC to 500 AD. (Janhunen 2012, Pevnov 2012) Other theories favor a homeland closer to

Lake Baikal Lake Baikal (, russian: Oзеро Байкал, Ozero Baykal ); mn, Байгал нуур, Baigal nuur) is a rift lake in Russia. It is situated in southern Siberia, between the federal subjects of Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the ...

. ( Menges 1968, Khelimskii 1985) While the general form of the protolanguage is clear from the similarities in the daughter languages, there is no consensus on detailed reconstructions. As of 2012, scholars are still trying to establish a shared vocabulary to do such a reconstruction. The Lake Khanka region was found to present the most likely homeland, based on linguistic and ancient genetic data. There are some proposed sound correspondences for Tungusic languages. For example, Norman (1977) supports a Proto-Tungusic ''*t'' > Manchu ''s'' when followed by ''*j'' in the same stem, with any exceptions arising from loanwords. Some linguists believe there are connections between the

vowel harmony In phonology, vowel harmony is an assimilatory process in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – have to be members of the same natural class (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is typically long distance, me ...

of Proto-Tungusic and some of the neighboring non-Tungusic languages. For example, there are proposals for an areal or genetic correspondence between the vowel harmonies of Proto-Korean, Proto-Mongolian, and Proto-Tungusic based on an original RTR harmony. This is one of several competing proposals, and on the other hand, some reconstruct Proto-Tungusic without RTR harmony. Some sources describe the Donghu people of 7th century BC to 2nd century BC Manchuria as Proto-Tungusic. Other sources sharply criticize this as a random similarity in pronunciation with "Tungus" that has no real basis in fact. The historical records of the Korean kingdoms of

Baekje Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder J ...

and

Silla Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms o ...

note battles with the Mohe ( zh, 靺鞨) in

during the 1st and 2nd centuries. Some scholars suggest these Mohe are closely connected to the later Jurchens, but this is controversial. Alexander Vovin (2015) notes that Northern Tungusic languages have Eskimo–Aleut loanwords that are not found in Southern Tungusic, implying that Eskimo–Aleut was once much more widely spoken in eastern Siberia. Vovin (2015) estimates that the Eskimo–Aleut loanwords in Northern Tungusic had been borrowed no more than 2,000 years ago, which was when Tungusic was spreading northwards from its homeland in the middle reaches of the

Amur River The Amur (russian: река́ Аму́р, ), or Heilong Jiang (, "Black Dragon River", ), is the world's tenth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeastern China (Inner Manchuria). The Amur proper is long ...

. Wang and Robbeets (2020) place the Proto-Tungusic homeland in the Lake Khanka region. Liu et al. (2020) revealed that Haplogroup C-F5484 and its subclades are the genetic markers of Tungusic-speaking peoples. C-F5484 was emerged 3,300 years ago and begun to diverge 1,900 years ago, indicating the approximate age of differentiation of Tungusic languages.

Jurchen-Manchu language

The earliest written attestation of the language family is in the Jurchen language, which was spoken by the rulers of the

Jin dynasty (1115–1234) The Jin dynasty (, ; ) or Jin State (; Jurchen: Anchun Gurun), officially known as the Great Jin (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 1115 and 1234. Its name is sometimes written as Kin, Jurchen Jin, Jinn, or Chin in ...

. The Jurchens invented a

Jurchen script The Jurchen script (Jurchen: ) was the writing system used to write the Jurchen language, the language of the Jurchen people who created the Jin Empire in northeastern China in the 12th–13th centuries. It was derived from the Khitan script ...

to write their language based on the Khitan scripts. During this time, several stelae were put up in Manchuria and Korea. One of these, among the most important extant texts in Jurchen, is the inscription on the back of "the Jin Victory Memorial Stele" (''Da Jin deshengtuo songbei''), which was erected in 1185, during the Dading period (1161–1189). It is apparently an abbreviated translation of the Chinese text on the front of the stele. The last known example of the Jurchen script was written in 1526. The Tungusic languages appear in the historical record again after the unification of the Jurchen tribes under Nurhaci, who ruled 1616-1626. He commissioned a new Manchu alphabet based on the Mongolian alphabet, and his successors went on to found the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

. In 1636, Emperor

Hong Taiji Hong Taiji (28 November 1592 – 21 September 1643), also rendered as Huang Taiji and sometimes referred to as Abahai in Western literature, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizong of Qing, was the second khan of the Later Jin ...

decreed that the ethnonym "Manchu" would replace "Jurchen". Modern scholarship usually treats Jurchen and Manchu as different stages of the same language. Currently, Manchu proper is a dying language spoken by a dozen or so elderly people in Qiqihar, China. However, the closely related Xibe language spoken in

, which historically was treated as a divergent dialect of Jurchen-Manchu, maintains the literary tradition of the script, and has around 30,000 speakers. As the only language in the Tungusic family with a long written tradition, Jurchen-Manchu is a very important language for the reconstruction of Proto-Tungusic.

Other Tungusic languages

Other Tungusic languages have relatively short or no written traditions. Since around the 20th century, some of these other languages can be written in a Russian-based

Cyrillic script The Cyrillic script ( ), Slavonic script or the Slavic script, is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking c ...

, but the languages remain primarily spoken languages only.

Tungusic research

The earliest Western accounts of Tungusic languages came from the Dutch traveler Nicolaes Witsen, who published in the Dutch language a book titled ''Noord en Oost Tartarye'' (literally 'North and East Tartary'), which described a variety of peoples in the

Russian Far East The Russian Far East (russian: Дальний Восток России, r=Dal'niy Vostok Rossii, p=ˈdalʲnʲɪj vɐˈstok rɐˈsʲiɪ) is a region in Northeast Asia. It is the easternmost part of Russia and the Asian continent; and is admin ...

and included some brief word lists for many languages. Following his travel to Russia, his collected findings were published in three editions, 1692, 1705, and 1785. The book includes some words and sentences from the

Evenki language Evenki (Ewenkī), formerly known as Tungus or Solon, is the largest member of the northern group of Tungusic languages, a group which also includes Even, Negidal, and the more closely related Oroqen language. The name is sometimes wrongly give ...

, then called "Tungus". The German linguist

Wilhelm Grube Wilhelm Grube () (17 August 1855 – 2 July 1908) was a German sinologist and ethnographer. He is particularly known for his work on Tungusic languages and the Jurchen language. Biography Grube was born in Saint Petersburg, Russia in 1855. He s ...

(1855–1908) published an early dictionary of the Nanai language (Gold language) in 1900, as well as deciphering the Jurchen language for modern audiences using a Chinese source.

Common characteristics

The Tungusic languages are of an

agglutinative In linguistics, agglutination is a morphological process in which words are formed by stringing together morphemes, each of which corresponds to a single syntactic feature. Languages that use agglutination widely are called agglutinative l ...

morphological type, and some of them have complex

case Case or CASE may refer to: Containers * Case (goods), a package of related merchandise * Cartridge case or casing, a firearm cartridge component * Bookcase, a piece of furniture used to store books * Briefcase or attaché case, a narrow box to ca ...

systems and elaborate patterns of tense and aspect marking. The normal word order for all of the languages is subject–object–verb.

Phonology

Tungusic languages exhibit a complex pattern of

, based on two parameters: vowel roundedness and vowel tenseness (in Evenki, the contrast is back and front, rather). Tense and lax vowels do not occur in the same word; all vowels in a word, including suffixes, are either one or the other. Rounded vowels in the root of a word cause all the following vowels in the word to become rounded, but not those before the rounded vowel. Those rules are not absolute, and there are many individual exceptions.

Vowel length In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived length of a vowel sound: the corresponding physical measurement is duration. In some languages vowel length is an important phonemic factor, meaning vowel length can change the meaning of the word ...

is phonemic, with many words distinguished based on the distinction between short vowel and long vowel. Tungusic words have simple word codas, and usually have simple word onsets, with

consonant clusters In linguistics, a consonant cluster, consonant sequence or consonant compound, is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word ''splits''. In the education ...

forbidden at the end of words and rare at the beginning. Below are Proto-Tungusic consonants as reconstructed by Tsintsius (1949) and the vowels according to Benzing (1955): : :

Lexicon

Below are the reconstructed Proto-Tungusic forms for the lexical items in the Leipzig–Jakarta list, extracted from the '' Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages'' (2003).

Relationships with other languages

Tungusic is today considered a primary language family. Especially in the past, some linguists have linked Tungusic with Turkic and Mongolic languages in the Altaic language family. However, a genetic, as opposed to an areal, link remains unproven. Others have suggested that the Tungusic languages may be related (perhaps as a

paraphyletic In taxonomy, a group is paraphyletic if it consists of the group's last common ancestor and most of its descendants, excluding a few monophyletic subgroups. The group is said to be paraphyletic ''with respect to'' the excluded subgroups. In ...

outgroup) to the

, Japonic, or Ainu languages as well (see Macro-Tungusic). In 2017, a link to Turkic and Mongolic languages was again proposed by

Martine Robbeets Martine Robbeets is a Belgian comparative linguist. She is known for the Transeurasian languages hypothesis, which groups the Japonic, Koreanic, Tungusic, Mongolic, and Turkic languages together into a single language family. Education Robbee ...

in her " Transeurasian family" (another name for Macro-Altaic). According to Robbeets, Tungusic is closest to Mongolic languages. The evidence for this proposal has been criticized by Tian. et al. Despite some similarities between the Tungusic and Koreanic languages, Alexander Vovin (2013) considers Tungusic and Koreanic to be separate, unrelated language groups that share areal rather than genetic commonalities through mutual influence of

Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled mos ...

and

on each other. The language of the Avars in Europe which created the Avar Khaganate is believed by some scholars to be of Tungusic origin.Helimski, E (2004). "Die Sprache(n) der Awaren: Die mandschu-tungusische Alternative". Proceedings of the First International Conference on Manchu-Tungus Studies, Vol. II: 59–72.

References

Citations

Sources

* Kane, Daniel. ''The Sino-Jurchen Vocabulary of the Bureau of Interpreters''. Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series, Volume 153. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1989. . * Miller, Roy Andrew. ''Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages''. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1971. * Poppe, Nicholas. ''Vergleichende Grammatik der Altaischen Sprachen'' Comparative Grammar of the Altaic Languages Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1960. * Tsintsius, Vera I. ''Sravnitel'naya Fonetika Tunguso-Man'chzhurskikh Yazïkov'' omparative Phonetics of the Manchu-Tungus Languages Leningrad, 1949. * Stefan Georg. "Unreclassifying Tungusic", in: Carsten Naeher (ed.): ''Proceedings of the First International Conference on Manchu-Tungus Studies (Bonn, August 28 – September 1, 2000), Volume 2: Trends in Tungusic and Siberian Linguistics'', Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 45–57. * Hölzl, Andreas & Payne, Thomas E. (eds.). 2022. Tungusic languages: Past and present. (Studies in Diversity Linguistics 32). Berlin: Language Science Press. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7025328 https://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/355 Open Access.

*Aixinjueluo Yingsheng. 2014. Manyu kouyu yindian . Peking: Huayi chubanshe. *. *Alonso de la Fuente, José Andrés. 2015
Tungusic historical linguistics and the Buyla (a.k.a. Nagyszentmiklós) inscription
Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 20. 17-46. *Alonso de la Fuente, José Andrés. 2017a
An Oroch word-list lost and rediscovered: A critical edition of Tronson's 1859 pseudo- Nivkh vocabulary
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Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia ''Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia'' (russian: Археология, Этнография и Антропология Евразии) is a bilingual peer-reviewed academic journal covering anthropological and archaeological studie ...

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Tungusic languages

Vergleich der Reziproken des Ewenischen mit verwandten Sprachen
* http://www.siberianlanguages.surrey.ac.uk/summary/ {{Authority control Agglutinative languages Language families