Tulkarm

Tulkarm, Tulkarem or Tull Keram ( ar, طولكرم, ''Ṭūlkarm'') is a Palestinian city in the West Bank, located in the Tulkarm Governorate of the State of Palestine. The Israeli city of Netanya is to the west, and the Palestinian cities of Nablus and Jenin to the east. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, in 2007 Tulkarm had a population of 51,300 while its adjacent refugee camp had a population of 10,641. Tulkarm is under the administration of the Palestinian Authority (as part of Area A).

Etymology

The Canaanite name, which survived through to Roman times, was ''Birat Sorqua'' ('well of the chosen vine'),Farid Al-Salim, ''Palestine and the Decline of the Ottoman Empire: Modernization and the Path to Palestinian Statehood,'' Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015 p.39 The Arabic name translates as "mountain of vines" and may be derived from the Aramaic name ''Tur Karma'' ("vineyard hill") which was used for Tulkarm by the Crusaders and by the mediaeval Samaritan inhabitants.

History

Ayyubid and Mamluk periods

During the Ayyubid era, after the Muslim reconquest of Palestine under Sultan Saladin in 1187, the first families to settle in Tulkarm were from the Kurdish clan of Zaydan. A military group, the Zaydan were dispatched to the Wadi al-Sha'ir area, which includes Tulkarm, by Saladin to buttress the defense of the western approaches of Muslim-held Palestine from the Crusaders who dominated the coastal area.

The Zaydan would come to politically dominate Tulkarm and the vicinity until the early 17th century. Around 1230, during the late Ayyubid period, a group of Arabs from southern Palestine immigrated to Tulkarm. They had originally migrated to Palestine from Arabia many generations prior and had become semi-nomadic farmers and grazers. Among the Arab families were the Fuqaha clan, who were considered ''ashraf'' (related to the Islamic prophet Muhammad) and served as the ''"ulama"'' (religious scholars) of the village.

During the Ayyubid, and later the Mamluk era (1260-1517), the majority of Tulkarm's lands were made part of a ''waqf'' ("religious trust") to support the al-Farisiyya Madrasa, an Islamic religious school in Jerusalem, located north of the Masjid Al-Aqsa compound. Two-thirds of the village's farmlands were confirmed as part of this trust in 1354 by the deputy-governor of Damascus, Faris al-Din al-Baki. During Mamluk rule another wave of Arab immigrants arrived in Tulkarm from North Africa and nearby Nablus. They largely engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, supplying hides to leather merchants in the coastal villages, retaken from the Crusaders in the second half of the 13th century.

Ottoman era

Tulkarm was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Afterward, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–66) transferred Tulkarm's ''waqf'' to the al-Jawhariyya Madrasa
Commons
, located in the Muslim Quarter, northwest of the al-Aqsa Mosque. Under this arrangement, Tulkarm's inhabitants paid a third of their harvest as a tax towards the ''waqf'', called ''qasm''. At the time of the ''waqfs reassignment, the population of the village was estimated at 522 (95 households) and the ''qasm'' consisted of eight carats of wheat and three carats of barley. The town's elite families administered the trust, which enabled them to reach higher social and economic status. The population increased through intermarriage with families fleeing violent feuds between the various clans of Jabal Nablus. By 1548, the population had grown significantly to 189 households or roughly 1,040 persons.

In 1596 Tulkarm appeared in Ottoman tax registers as being in the ''nahiya'' (subdistrict) of Qaqun, which was a part of the '' sanjak'' (district) of Nablus. The largest village in the ''nahiya'', Tulkarm had a population of 176 Muslim households (roughly 968 persons) and paid taxes on wheat, barley, summer crops, olives, goats, beehives and a press for olives or grapes. During this early period of Ottoman rule, there were five neighborhoods (pl. ''harat'') centered around the Shaykh Ali al-Jazri al-Mughrabi Mosque, today referred to simply as the "Old Mosque." The population was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, and most residents were ''fellahin'' (peasants who worked the land.) The elite families during that time were the Zaydan and the Lajjun-based Tarabay, the latter belonging to the Bani Harith tribe. Because of the decentralized nature of the Ottoman state, these families and their successors in later centuries ruled the area with a high degree of autonomy. The Zaydan had particular authority over Tulkarm, being appointed as the ''mutassalim'' (tax collectors or enforcers) on behalf of the central authorities.

In the mid-17th-century most members of the Zaydan family, with the exception of the children and the elderly, were killed in a massacre by Tulkarm's inhabitants during Friday prayers. This was in reaction to the Zaydan having forced Tulkarm's residents to harvest and process the village's grains for taxation purposes. Consequently, political power in Tulkarm passed to the Badran clan, while the Fuqaha family took control of administering the ''"waqf"'' lands, firmly placing them as the village's religious leaders. The Fuqaha had derived much of their authority from their classification as ''"ashraf"'' and their association with the Sufi Rifa'iyya '' zawiya'' of the village. The western neighborhood was mostly emptied of Zaydan members and would serve as the main area of settlement for newcomers.

Tulkarm appears on sheet 45 of Jacotin's map drawn-up during Napoleon's invasion in 1799, named ''Toun Karin.''

Following the adoption of the Ottoman Land Code in 1858, the ''musha'' (collective landownership) system was gradually abrogated and residents were required to register their property with the central authorities. The fellahin were wary of registering their names for fear of military conscription by the Ottoman state and instead entrusted various elite clans with the role of landlords, who were in effect absentee owners. This altered the area's social structure, with the Samara, al-Hajj Ibrahim and Hanun clans legally obtaining vast swathes of Tulkarm's lands. Leadership of the town's two main religious establishments were generally supplied by the Kur-based Jayyusi clan and the al-Barqawi clan of Shufa. The Barqawi clan controlled the area around the town in the 19th century.

The 19th-century French explorer Victor Guérin visited Tulkarm, which he described as being of "considerable" size, with about 1,000 inhabitants.Guérin, 1875, pp
353
354
In 1882 the ''Survey of Western Palestine'' described Tulkarm as a "long straggling village, on high ground", surrounded by arable land and rock. There were several "good-sized" houses, mainly of stone in the village.

Tulkarm was made the administrative center of the Bani Sa'b subdistrict in 1886,Semplici, Andrea and Boccia, Mario
Tulkarm: The Bountiful Mountain
Med Corporation. pp. 3-8.Mattar, p. 494. later becoming a municipality in 1892.Thawaba, 2009, p. 31. Tulkarm was also appointed a governor, bringing the residents who numbered only a few thousand and who were mostly ''fellahin'', closer to the central government. This elevated status gave Tulkarm precedence over the nearby villages, which at that time also included Qalqilya. Tulkarm's center shifted from the Old Mosque to an empty space in the northwest as the town expanded northward with the construction government buildings, a post office, a school and a hospital in that area. These new services further cemented Tulkarm's role as a focal point for the inhabitants of the area.

In 1908, the Ottomans turned Tulkarm into a major rail junction on the Hejaz Railway line running up from Egypt and southern Palestine to Haifa and Acre in the northwest, Jerusalem, Nablus and Ramallah to the south, Lebanon to the north, and Syria and Transjordan to the east. The Ottoman Army used Tulkarm as one of their principal bases during the Sinai and Palestine campaign in World War I, and was bombed by British planes carried by HMS Anne. In 1918, it was captured by British forces.

British Mandate era

The British Mandatory administration (1920-1947) in Palestine designated Tulkarm as the center of the Tulkarm Subdistrict. The town and its vicinity played major role as a haven and area for Palestinian Arab rebel activity during the 1936–1939 Arab revolt against British rule in Palestine. General Commander of the Revolt Abd al-Rahim al-Hajj Muhammad hailed from Dhinnaba, today a part of Tulkarm municipality, and led many operations in the town's vicinity.

In 1920, a road was constructed to connect the town with Netanya on the coast. In order to cope with a significant increase in population and unorganized infrastructural development since the beginning of the 20th century, a civil planning scheme was designed for Tulkarm and its satellite villages of Dhinnaba, Shuweikah and Irtah in 1945. At the time Tulkarm was divided into four main sections, with the bulk of commercial activity concentrated along the north–south and east–west roads. Meanwhile, urban sprawl continued to expand past the northern fringes of the town, which had previously been characterized by green spaces.

In the 1945 statistics the population of Tulkarm consisted of 8,090; of whom 7,790 were Muslims, 280 Christian and 20 "other", with a land area of 1,672 dunams (urban) and 32,610 dunams (rural), according to an official land and population survey.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. ''Village Statistics, April, 1945.'' Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p
77
/ref> Of this, 2,399 dunams were designated for citrus and bananas, 276 plantations and irrigable land, 28,256 for cereals, while 1,492 dunams were built-up areas.

Jordanian rule

During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Tulkarm was under the control of the Iraqi Army and later annexed as part of the Jordanian-held West Bank. The 1949 Armistice Agreements

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