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Treaty of Naples was a political-military agreement between the
Kingdom of Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , ...
and the Kingdom of Poland, signed in
Naples Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adm ...
in late 1639. The Polish king
Władysław IV Władysław is a Polish given male name, cognate with Vladislav. The feminine form is Władysława, archaic forms are Włodzisław (male) and Włodzisława (female), and Wladislaw is a variation. These names may refer to: Famous people Mononym * ...
agreed to raise an army of 17,000 men, which would consist of 12,000
cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in ...
and 5,000
infantry Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and mar ...
. Following transit across the
imperial Imperial is that which relates to an empire, emperor, or imperialism. Imperial or The Imperial may also refer to: Places United States * Imperial, California * Imperial, Missouri * Imperial, Nebraska * Imperial, Pennsylvania * Imperial, Texas ...
territory, the troops were to be employed under Spanish command in
Flanders Flanders (, ; Dutch: ''Vlaanderen'' ) is the Flemish-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to cultu ...
against the
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
. The Spanish king Felipe IV, apart from covering recruitment and maintenance cost, was to pay the Polish monarch 500,000 Neapolitan escudos. The Poles almost immediately demanded re-negotiation of the treaty, which resulted in another agreement concluded in 1641; the Spaniards were to pay more for an even smaller army. This treaty was not implemented either, and the Madrid court cancelled the deal in early 1642. The treaty remains the only bilateral Spanish-Polish
military alliance A military alliance is a formal agreement between nations concerning national security. Nations in a military alliance agree to active participation and contribution to the defense of others in the alliance in the event of a crisis. (Online) ...
agreement ever concluded between the two countries.


Spain and Poland until mid-1630s

Until the early modern period relations between Spain and Poland were close to non-existent. Politically the two countries operated in entirely different zones; the former focused on the
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
, western/central
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on ...
and northern slopes of the
Pyrenees The Pyrenees (; es, Pirineos ; french: Pyrénées ; ca, Pirineu ; eu, Pirinioak ; oc, Pirenèus ; an, Pirineus) is a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. It extends nearly from its union with the Cantabrian Mountains to ...
, the latter concentrated on the
Baltic Baltic may refer to: Peoples and languages *Baltic languages, a subfamily of Indo-European languages, including Lithuanian, Latvian and extinct Old Prussian *Balts (or Baltic peoples), ethnic groups speaking the Baltic languages and/or originatin ...
and huge plains in the
Oder The Oder ( , ; Czech, Lower Sorbian and ; ) is a river in Central Europe. It is Poland's second-longest river in total length and third-longest within its borders after the Vistula and Warta. The Oder rises in the Czech Republic and flows ...
-
Vistula The Vistula (; pl, Wisła, ) is the longest river in Poland and the ninth-longest river in Europe, at in length. The drainage basin, reaching into three other nations, covers , of which is in Poland. The Vistula rises at Barania Góra in ...
-
Dnieper } The Dnieper () or Dnipro (); , ; . is one of the major transboundary rivers of Europe, rising in the Valdai Hills near Smolensk, Russia, before flowing through Belarus and Ukraine to the Black Sea. It is the longest river of Ukraine an ...
basins. However, in the 16th century both states emerged as continental powers and their geographical interests became closer. The first major political encounter turned out to be a conflict; crowns of Spain and Poland claimed the south-Italian heritage of
Bona Sforza Bona Sforza d'Aragona (2 February 1494 – 19 November 1557) was Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania as the second wife of Sigismund I the Old, and Duchess of Bari and Rossano by her own right. She was a surviving member of ...
, the late queen-consort of Poland. In the late 16th century both courts started to maintain diplomatic representatives in respective capitals, and politicians began to consider would-be opportunities related. First major attempts to achieve some synergy occurred in early phases of the
Thirty Years' War The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, lasting from 1618 to 1648. Fought primarily in Central Europe, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of batt ...
. In the mid-1620s Felipe IV of Spain intended to crack down on Dutch merchant shipping on northern routes, while Sigismund III of Poland, himself of Swedish origin, had his eyes set on regaining the throne in
Stockholm Stockholm () is the capital and largest city of Sweden as well as the largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 980,000 people live in the municipality, with 1.6 million in the urban area, and 2.4 million in the metropo ...
. Diplomatic services of both monarchs worked to build a navy, possibly financed by the Spaniards and manned by the Poles, which would seize control over the western Baltic. However, interests of both kingdoms were not exactly the same; moreover, the
emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...
and his allies pursued their own goals. The result was that a joint fleet was captured by the Swedes in 1631. In 1632 Spain withdrew from active Baltic policy. The new Polish king Władysław IV, crowned in 1632, resumed the plans harbored by his father. In 1634 he sent a special envoy to
Madrid Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), and ...
. Apart from usual negotiations on the Sforza heritage, the talks focused on compensation for the Polish fleet lost to the Swedes when nominally at the service of Felipe IV and ensuring Spanish posts and pension for two royal brothers. The main point, however, was Spanish financial support for future Polish military effort against Sweden, since 1630 the formal belligerent in the Thirty Years' War. The Polish-Swedish 1629 Altmark truce was to expire in 1635 and the Polish monarch was considering renewal of the conflict. In 1634 Władysław sent another envoy, and in 1635 another one followed. Until that time Madrid adopted an ambiguous stand; the Spaniards politely listened to Polish demands, but there were no tangible results. This changed in the spring of 1635, when two envoys were agreed to travel to
Warsaw Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officiall ...
. However, they did not realize the urgency. French envoys, sent from
Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. Si ...
at approximately the same time but with opposite objectives, travelled by sea and arrived in Poland in May 1635 just in time to secure prolongation of the Altmark truce in Stuhmsdorf. The Spaniards travelled by land and with many detours; they reached the king in
Vilnius Vilnius ( , ; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Lithuania, with a population of 592,389 (according to the state register) or 625,107 (according to the municipality of Vilnius). The population of Vilnius's functional urba ...
in August 1636. It was there that they first proposed that an army be raised in Poland to join the fighting in ranks of the Catholic League.


Vasas, Habsburgs and the French (1637–1639)

The year of 1637 produced what seemed like an emerging alliance between the
Habsburgs The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in Englishgerman: Haus Habsburg, ; es, Casa de Habsburgo; hu, Habsburg család, it, Casa di Asburgo, nl, Huis van Habsburg, pl, dom Habsburgów, pt, Casa de Habsburgo, la, Domus Hab ...
and the Polish Vasas. Madrid granted pension to two royal brothers and conferred upon prince John Casimir the Toisón d’Or order. Before leaving Warsaw the Spanish envoy Vázquez de Miranda has also agreed to pay compensation for the fleet lost in
Wismar Wismar (; Low German: ''Wismer''), officially the Hanseatic City of Wismar (''Hansestadt Wismar'') is, with around 43,000 inhabitants, the sixth-largest city of the northeastern German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and the fourth-largest cit ...
and interests on Sforza's heritage, though there was no tangible result when it comes to a job for the Polish prince; only vague concepts about his role in command of the Mediterranean fleet or an army in Flanders were floated. The major step, however, was related to the emperor. The Vienna Habsburgs and the Warsaw Vasas agreed on a so-called Family Pact. Władysław IV and the emperor Ferdinand III were cousins, as mother of the Polish king was sister to emperor Ferdinand II. However, in line with the pact they became also brothers-in-law, as Władysław IV was agreed to marry
Cecilia Renata of Austria Cecilia Renata of Austria (german: Cäcilia Renata, pl, Cecylia Renata; 16 July 1611 – 24 March 1644) was Queen of Poland as the wife of King Władysław IV Vasa. Selection and coronation Cecilia Renata was a daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Fe ...
, the sister of Ferdinand III. Though the agreement sealed some heritage and succession issues and did not cover military co-operation, it seemed that following years of indecision, the king of Poland was firmly leaning towards
Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...
instead of Paris. In early 1638 prince John Casimir left Poland for Spain; it is not entirely clear whether Madrid and Warsaw had agreed on his future role on the Iberian Peninsula or whether he travelled to speed negotiations up. During his stay in Vienna the Paris press broke the news on his future appointment as viceroy of Portugal; Spanish sources suggest it was merely an option, considered at Consejo de Estado. However, in May the French detained the prince in Port-de-Bouc, as he was travelling from Italy to Spain along the Mediterranean coast. Officially he was charged with
espionage Espionage, spying, or intelligence gathering is the act of obtaining secret or confidential information ( intelligence) from non-disclosed sources or divulging of the same without the permission of the holder of the information for a tang ...
, but scholars speculate that
cardinal Richelieu Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu (; 9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642), known as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French clergyman and statesman. He was also known as ''l'Éminence rouge'', or "the Red Eminence", a term derived from the ...
seized the opportunity to dissuade Władysław IV from military alliance with the Habsburgs and from entering the Thirty Years' War. During the summer it turned out that the royal brother would not be freed any time soon. In October 1638 Władysław met Ferdinand III in Nikolsburg to agree further action; both monarchs decided to seek mediation of Italian states, usually on good terms with the
king of France France was ruled by monarchs from the establishment of the Kingdom of West Francia in 843 until the end of the Second French Empire in 1870, with several interruptions. Classical French historiography usually regards Clovis I () as the fir ...
. A Tuscan citizen in service of the Polish king, Francisco de Bivoni, was sent to the Apennine Peninsula. In late 1638 he held talks in
Republic of Venice The Republic of Venice ( vec, Repùblega de Venèsia) or Venetian Republic ( vec, Repùblega Vèneta, links=no), traditionally known as La Serenissima ( en, Most Serene Republic of Venice, italics=yes; vec, Serenìsima Repùblega de Venèsia ...
and in early 1639 he was in
Republic of Genoa The Republic of Genoa ( lij, Repúbrica de Zêna ; it, Repubblica di Genova; la, Res Publica Ianuensis) was a medieval and early modern maritime republic from the 11th century to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast. During the La ...
, in both cases assisted by the Spanish diplomacy. He was also empowered to represent the Polish king in the
Duchy of Parma The Duchy of Parma and Piacenza ( it, Ducato di Parma e Piacenza, la, Ducatus Parmae et Placentiae), was an Italian state created in 1545 and located in northern Italy, in the current region of Emilia-Romagna. Originally a realm of the Farnese ...
; he might have been there in the early spring of 1639. All these efforts proved fruitless; Richelieu did not change his stand and John Casimir remained in the French custody for already a year.


Madrid and Warsaw decide to enter military talks (1639)

While the Poles sought a peaceful way to free the prince, the Spaniards were pondering upon seizing the opportunity and as suggested back in 1636, they renewed the concept of getting the Poles engaged militarily against the French, possibly in Flanders. Felipe IV sent to Warsaw another envoy; it was Fernando de Monroy, nephew of the Spanish ambassador in Vienna marqués de Castañeda and already resident in the Austrian capital. He arrived in Warsaw in the spring of 1639 and found Władysław IV not only upset with the French and frustrated with futile Italian mediation, but also adopting an increasingly belligerent attitude. Details of Monroy's talks in Poland are not known and it is not clear who he spoke to, yet the key of his partners was
Adam Kazanowski Adam Kazanowski (c. 1599 – 25 December 1649) was a noble of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1633, Greater Crown Stolnik from 1634, Court Chamberlain (''podkomorzy koronny'') and castellan of Sandomierz from 1637, Court Marshall from ...
, personal friend of the king and high official at the court. When discussing raising of the army to engage along the Habsburgs he identified 3 options possible: that the
Polish diet The Sejm (English: , Polish: ), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Polish: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the lower house of the bicameral parliament of Poland. The Sejm has been the highest governing body of th ...
approves of the plan and the king leads the troops himself, that the diet rejects the plan and a royal brother leads the troops under the Vasa standard, and that in case John Casimir is freed from French custody, troops are raised and sent under the Habsburg colors. During or shortly after Monroy's mission the Polish king decided to explore the path proposed by Madrid and to start talks on military co-operation, potentially aimed against the French. Some time in mid-1639 Bivoni, still on the Apennine Peninsula, had his powers extended accordingly and he moved further south. In August he was already in the
Kingdom of Naples The Kingdom of Naples ( la, Regnum Neapolitanum; it, Regno di Napoli; nap, Regno 'e Napule), also known as the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was ...
; he engaged in negotiations with duque de Medina de las Torres, the
viceroy of Naples This is a list of viceroys of the Kingdom of Naples. Following the conquest of Naples by Louis XII of France in 1501, Naples was subject to the rule of the foreign rulers, the Kings of France, Aragon and Spain and the Habsburg Archdukes of Austria ...
. In the fall of 1639 the issue was repeatedly discussed at Consejo de Estado in Madrid. Though there were different views, final decision was with Olivares, the prime minister and key decision maker. His opinion prevailed and the Council agreed to proceed; Medina de las Torres was empowered the handle the negotiations. It is not exactly clear why Naples and Medina have been chosen; Vienna would have been closer and the Spanish diplomatic team there, especially marqués de Castañeda, were better acquainted with details of East European policy. Scholars speculate that at the time the Kingdom of Naples turned into sort of a logistics base and reserve economic pool for Madrid, and Medina was well experienced in handling related financial issues. It might have been that Felipe IV intended to negotiate away from the watchful eye of the imperial Habsburg diplomacy. Then, the Polish envoy was already on the Apennine Peninsula. Last but not least, southern Italy was located sort of half-way between Madrid and Warsaw and since Sforza's death the area was of mutual interest to both kings.


Spanish and Polish objectives

In 1637–1638 the Habsburgs recorded a string of defeats, including rupture of Camino Español. Their forces were overstretched and capable of defensive action only. Scholars note also that since the mid-1630s the military resources of Madrid and Vienna were running out. Apart from already exploited core recruitment areas also reserve territories were hardly in position to raise new troops; some recruits were delivered to frontline units in chains. Minor groups related to Eastern Europe have already been engaged, e.g. a
Scotsman The Scots ( sco, Scots Fowk; gd, Albannaich) are an ethnic group and nation native to Scotland. Historically, they emerged in the early Middle Ages from an amalgamation of two Celtic-speaking peoples, the Picts and Gaels, who fou ...
formerly in the Polish service, experienced during Muscovite campaigns, later commanded a unit partially composed of his equally experienced compatriots in Flanders. There were attempts to recruit in
Denmark ) , song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast") , song_type = National and royal anthem , image_map = EU-Denmark.svg , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of Denmark , establish ...
,
Hamburg Hamburg (, ; nds, label=Hamburg German, Low Saxon, Hamborg ), officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (german: Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg; nds, label=Low Saxon, Friee un Hansestadt Hamborg),. is the List of cities in Germany by popul ...
,
Bavaria Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total l ...
and Tirol. The army branch affected in particular was the cavalry. At the same time, Polish mounted units gained recognition in Europe. However, they were also doubts lingering. Some viewed them as brutal and hard to control; the
Elector of Saxony The Electorate of Saxony, also known as Electoral Saxony (German: or ), was a territory of the Holy Roman Empire from 1356–1806. It was centered around the cities of Dresden, Leipzig and Chemnitz. In the Golden Bull of 1356, Emperor Charles ...
claimed that
cossack The Cossacks , es, cosaco , et, Kasakad, cazacii , fi, Kasakat, cazacii , french: cosaques , hu, kozákok, cazacii , it, cosacchi , orv, коза́ки, pl, Kozacy , pt, cossacos , ro, cazaci , russian: казаки́ or ...
mercenaries in Polish service were “harmful people that do as much damage to enemies as to friends”. Some Spaniards thought that Poland was too far to make any co-operation reliable; however, Felipe IV seemed well disposed and noted that cossacks were “unique when it comes to making breakthroughs and crossing mountains”. Initially the Spanish thought about engaging Polish troops against the Swedes in
northern Germany Northern Germany (german: link=no, Norddeutschland) is a linguistic, geographic, socio-cultural and historic region in the northern part of Germany which includes the coastal states of Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Lower Saxony an ...
, but given the Polish-Swedish armistice was in force they then switched to the idea of a Polish army fighting the French in Flanders. The Polish objectives are far less clear. Following wars against
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic countries, Nordic c ...
,
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula ...
and
Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-ei ...
, since 1634 the country was enjoying the period of peace; it was much appreciated by
nobility Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The character ...
, which bore the brunt of all military effort. They had little understanding for Swedish dynastic objectives of their Vasa king, and even less so given it would result in Polish entry in the Thirty Years' War. Neither Władysław IV was eager to join the European bloodshed. He might have considered minor engagement if this would enhance his position against the competitive Vasa branch ruling in Sweden, but he was generally unwilling to commit himself either to the Spanish-Austrian alliance or to the French; his strategy consisted of leaving all options open. Detention of his brother John Casimir pushed him towards opening military negotiations with Felipe IV. However, it is not clear whether he genuinely considered a Polish army to be engaged against the French, or whether from the onset he approached his talks with the Spaniards merely as a diplomatic means against Paris, and was never willing to close a deal with Madrid. Another possible option was that objectives of Władysław IV were purely financial, and that dependent upon the diet when it comes to raising money internally, he intended to extract cash from the Madrid court.


Treaty of Naples (1639)

Negotiations were held in Naples by Bivoni on behalf of Władysław IV and by Medina de las Torres in name of Felipe IV; other personalities were also involved, like the Polish internuncio in Naples. It is known that the two started talking already in August 1639; however, Medina was fully empowered by Consejo de Estado no earlier than in November 1639. It is not clear when both negotiators arrived at an agreement; one scholar claims the talks were closed by the year-end but provides no date. Exact format of the compromise is not known though it was formalized on paper and signed; neither the original nor a copy has been found in Spanish or Polish archives, and its contents are referred after later correspondence. However, scholars refer firmly to “Tratado de Nápoles”, “traktat sojuszniczy” or “układ neapolitański”. The treaty envisioned raising an army in Poland. The force was to be formed by 12,000 cavalry and 5,000 infantry. They were to be accompanied by usual support and logistics units, not intended for combat, though estimates of strength of the entire army differ between 22,000 and almost 60,000 men. They were to be commanded by Polish officers and appear officially as the army at the service of the Polish king. The troops were to be transported by land from Poland to Flanders; details were not specified. Once there, the troops would join the army commanded by Cardenal Infante and engage in combat against the French, which would technically put Poland on wartime footing against France. It was agreed the Poland would neither conclude a separatist peace with France nor return any seized territory to the French without prior agreement with the Spaniards. In return, viceroy of Naples in name of Felipe IV was to pay the Polish king 500,000 Neapolitan escudos. It was also agreed – though it is not clear whether appropriate stipulations were included in the treaty itself – that on the Spanish side execution of treaty would be co-ordinated by 3 individuals. The financials were entrusted to Medina de las Torres, to be handled by infrastructure controlled by the Kingdom of Naples. The embassy in Vienna, headed by marqués de Castañeda, was supposed to negotiate the passage of Polish troops across the empire and manage relations with the Vienna court. Finally, an Italian in Spanish diplomatic service, a certain Allegretto de Allegretti, who for some time has been serving as a link between the Vienna embassy and Warsaw, was to supervise recruitment and organization of the troops in Poland. The army was supposed to be ready by late spring of 1640 and to cross the empire during the summer, to pass under the Spanish command later. Though the Vienna diplomacy was informed about the developments, they were not consulted on specific issues and did not participate in the negotiations.


Implementation of the treaty (1640)

In early 1640 Medina transferred 430,000
ducat The ducat () coin was used as a trade coin in Europe from the later Middle Ages from the 13th to 19th centuries. Its most familiar version, the gold ducat or sequin containing around of 98.6% fine gold, originated in Venice in 1284 and gained ...
s to Castañeda in Vienna for further processing and in March he notified Madrid that the first installment had been paid. At the time Allegretti was already in Warsaw and reported problems. King Władysław IV pointed to procedural issues which allegedly made ratification of the treaty unfeasible. In the spring a Polish mission in Paris secured liberation of Jan Kazimierz following 2 years in custody; in return, the Vasas pledged not to engage militarily against the French. Some scholars believe that liberation of the prince was immediate result of the Naples talks, which by the time were already no secret, though this remains disputable speculation only. In line with earlier agreement the Spaniards expected that works on implementation of the Treaty of Naples go on, and Bivoni ensured them that this was indeed the case. However, there was no visible progress in terms of actual recruitment. In late spring Madrid decided to send to Poland a military who would professionally assess the state of affairs; the person chosen was Pedro Roco de Villagutiérrez, cavalry captain at the service of Cardenal Infante in Flanders. He travelled from
Regensburg Regensburg or is a city in eastern Bavaria, at the confluence of the Danube, Naab and Regen rivers. It is capital of the Upper Palatinate subregion of the state in the south of Germany. With more than 150,000 inhabitants, Regensburg is the ...
and arrived in Warsaw in July 1640. Villagutiérrez was not entitled to any political talks; his task was to join forces with Allegretti to get the agreed deal done. Initially he worked with Kazanowski and his ally Kasper Denhoff to get the treaty published but he soon concluded that the Poles merely sought a point of deadlock that they could blame the Spaniards for. Himself he was profoundly skeptical about the entire deal and reported to Madrid that raising such a major force of
mercenaries A mercenary, sometimes Pseudonym, also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a memb ...
was militarily not very efficient. Moreover, Vienna declared that given recently suffered wartime destruction and plundering of imperial territory, they would not allow the Polish army to go through. Given the stalemate, Bivoni and Monroy suggested payments to key Polish officials to get the deal executed; apart from Kazanowski the person identified as key decision-maker was Jerzy Ossoliński, an experienced statesman handling a number of diplomatic tasks. Though the Spaniards initially considered paying both Kazanowski and Ossoliński, they eventually decided to focus on the former; the sum intended for him (including the markup for Bivoni) was 20,000 thaler. However, this helped little. In mid-1640 Bivoni told Medina that in new circumstances, the deal had to be re-negotiated. The viceroy of Naples firmly opposed re-opening of closed agreement, but Madrid was in increasingly difficult position. Apart from a string of military defeats there was a rebellion in Catalonia and tension was running high in Portugal; Medina was instructed to talk. In the meantime, problems with implementation of the treaty led to two personal changes. Castañeda had to leave the Vienna embassy, charged by Medina with mishandling the issue. Bivoni – who according to hints of the Warsaw officials might have exceeded his powers – was also recalled; he was replaced by Maciej Tytlewski, who arrived in Naples in late 1640.


New treaty (1641)

Renewed negotiations between Tytlewski and Medina took place in late 1640 and early 1641; they were concluded in February. Again, there is no formal document identified in the archives and it is not at all certain that such document has ever been signed. However, Spanish scholars refer formally to the agreement as “segundo Tratado de Nápoles” or – given final touches were added later in Warsaw – as “Tratado de Varsovia” and “acuerdo de Varsovia”; Polish scholars refer somewhat more vaguely to “kolejne porozumienie”. The February 1641 agreement made a few important changes to the Treaty of Naples. The first was about reducing the army; troops to be raised numbered 13,000 combat-ready men. The force of 9,000 cavalry consisted of 3,000 heavy-weight
lancers A lancer was a type of cavalryman who fought with a lance. Lances were used for mounted warfare in Assyria as early as and subsequently by Persia, India, Egypt, China, Greece, and Rome. The weapon was widely used throughout Eurasia during the ...
(identified by some scholars as winged hussars) and 6,000 light-weight cossacks; the infantry numbered 4,000 men. Including support and logistics rear, the army was again to be in the range of 20,000 to 40,000 people. The money to be paid by the Spaniards to the Polish royal treasury was 230,000
thaler A thaler (; also taler, from german: Taler) is one of the large silver coins minted in the states and territories of the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy during the Early Modern period. A ''thaler'' size silver coin has a diameter o ...
plus 400,000 thaler in case Poland gets involved in war against Sweden, Russia or Turkey, which effectively doubled the cost agreed back in 1639. The force was to be raised not in name of the Polish king but in name of the emperor, and as such it was to pass under command of Cardenal Infante in Flanders. Finally, numerous details were added to specify issues such as command, transport and logistics, e.g. Medina successfully resisted the demand that the troops be entitled to plunder territories they pass through. Scholars note that businesswise, the Polish king made an excellent deal. A winged hussar in regular Polish wartime service was paid annually 164 złoty; in emperor's service and under Spanish command he would cost 30 thaler monthly, equivalent to some 1,080 złoty annually. Similar differences were involved in case of a cossack (24 thaler monthly) and an infantryman (12 thaler monthly). All this came on top of one-off recruitment cost, also to be covered by the Spaniards: 40 thaler for a hussar, 30 thaler for a cossack and 16 thaler for an infantryman, and on top of the 230,000-thaler fee agreed as political cost of the deal, to be pocketed by the treasury of Władysław IV. Despite the higher cost and extra conditions attached, Medina seemed satisfied with the deal and he reported it to Felipe IV as a success. To avoid problems which followed the 1639 treaty – for which Medina blamed Castañeda and his envoy Allegretti – this time the viceroy of Naples sent his own representative to Warsaw to supervise the implementation. The person chosen was Vicenzo Tuttavilla, duca de Calabritto, a military man who later grew to high commander in the army of the Kingdom of Naples.


Failed implementation proceedings (1641–1642)

When Tuttavilla arrived in Warsaw in the spring of 1641 he found himself engaged in diplomatic struggle against a team of French envoys, who worked to prevent the Vasa rapprochement with the Habsburgs and ensure Polish neutrality in the Thirty Years' War. He could have reported partial success, as Władysław IV refused to ratify the 1640 agreement with Richelieu, which pledged not to engage Polish troops against the French. However, there was little follow-up of the Naples agreement, either in terms of approval by the diet or in terms of actual recruitment. In June 1641 Tytlewski presented Medina with a letter from the Polish king. It included numerous demands presented as conditions of implementation: payment of interests on the Sforza heritage and appropriate arrangements for Ducado di Bari and Principato di Rossano, compensation for the Wismar fleet and nomination of John Casimir to virrey de Portugal. Moreover, Władysław IV asked that 400,000-thaler-fee, originally to be paid only in case Poland gets engaged in a war against Sweden, Russia or Turkey is paid unconditionally. Despite this blow, Medina still considered the deal negotiable and was principally concerned about the financials. Kazanowski, who by the time has pocketed large sums from the Spaniards and was personally implicated in the deal, maintained that there was a high chance of success; in early autumn of 1641 he claimed having support of 48 senators with only few more needed to be won over. However, he was getting less and less credible; some Spaniards claimed that they were betting on the wrong horse and that Ossoliński should have been their man. In late 1641 the emperor Ferdinand III declared that no Polish army would be allowed to pass through his lands; Madrid sent Marqués de Castelo Rodrigo to Vienna to negotiate, but the envoy was only treated to suggestions that the entire deal be abandoned, with cheaper recruitment options in Denmark or
Silesia Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Silesia, Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. S ...
. The position of Medina himself, the chief negotiator of the deal, was also becoming fragile; his political ally Cardinal Infante passed away and he was left relying solely on his family relation to Olivares. His personal prestige at stake, he kept claiming that all was negotiable and suggested that perhaps the Poles be used against the rebels in Catalonia. Tuttavilla kept discussing terms of transit and in January 1642 he agreed on further details, supposed to make the passage of Poles acceptable to the emperor. However, at this point Madrid declared the entire deal unworkable and Medina was notified accordingly. The Poles were told that opposition on part of the emperor cancelled the project, while money originally intended for Warsaw was transferred to Flanders.


Political and historiographic evaluation

In the aftermath of failed negotiations Spanish officials remained positive that the deal had been feasible and that errors on part of their diplomacy prevented the implementation. Medina was very critical about Castañeda and claimed the Vienna ambassador mishandled his mission, namely that appointment of Allegretti allowed the Poles to believe the treaty was negotiable. Marqués de la Fuente suggested the Spaniards relied on the wrong man in Warsaw. Following the later unrelated conflict of 1644 between the Poles and Medina in Naples, which contributed to his dismissal from the virrey position, some in Madrid started to harbor doubts about negotiating skills of Medina himself. Spanish authors present the episode very much in terms of Poles bent on extracting as much money from the Spanish crown as possible. Accordingly, they attribute final collapse of the project to financial problems of Felipe IV, who was unable to pay for his ambitions. Another factor listed as contributing to failure was position adopted by the emperor; always skeptical about transit of the Poles across his territory; in key moments he refused the right of passage and effectively buried the project. Finally, it is noted that given Poland's deteriorating relations with Turkey, Warsaw turned its attention towards the South-East. Polish historians have doubts about intentions of Władysław IV and suspect that he might have engaged in negotiations with the Spaniards with ill will, using them as an instrument enabling him to exert some pressure on the French. Some assume that his gamble was effective and that it produced liberation of prince John Casimir; afterwards the king lost any interest in military dealings with Felipe IV. Others suggest that neither the Spaniards nor the Poles were familiar with political conditions of their partners. The Madrid court assumed that in Poland position of the king was similar to this in Spain, and they did not realize that dealing with Władysław IV was far from dealing with the Kingdom of Poland. On the other hand, the Vasa diplomacy was misled into believing that Felipe IV possessed enormous resources and it was not aware of his perennial financial problems. Potential impact of the Naples-agreed Polish army in the Thirty Years' War remains nothing but a speculation. The Polish light cavalry formation known as lisowczycy, at times confused with cossacks, was briefly engaged in 1620 fighting in Upper Hungary; it achieved some success against Protestant troops, but gained opinion of an army that “God would not want and the devil would be afraid of”, which made its further employment doubtful. However, some of them were deployed in imperial ranks against the French in Flanders in the mid-1630s, where they confirmed their notorious status of indisciplined and brutal plunderers. Also some mercenary units previously at the Polish service were operating in Flanders, but their military potential was assessed as at best moderate and their number dwindled due to desertions. It is not known what would have been the result of combining Spanish tercios, at the time considered the best world infantry, with emblematic Polish winged hussars.who proved themselves capable of routing much larger Swedish troops. During the
battle of Kircholm The Battle of Kircholm ( lt, Salaspilio mūšis; ) was one of the major battles in the Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611). The battle was decided in 20 minutes by the devastating charge of Polish-Lithuanian cavalry, the Winged Hussars. The ba ...
(1605) some 3,500 Polish troops, most of them winged hussars, first defeated and then slaughtered the Swedish army of some 11,000 men; Polish casualties were 300, Swedish casualties were 5,000, ''Early Modern Wars 1500-1775'', London 2013, ISBN 9781782741213, p. 122


See also

*
Thirty Years' War The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, lasting from 1618 to 1648. Fought primarily in Central Europe, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of batt ...
*
Medina de las Torres Medina de las Torres is a municipality located in the province of Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain. According to the 2005 census (INE INE, Ine or ine may refer to: Institutions * Institut für Nukleare Entsorgung, a German nuclear research center ...
*
Adam Kazanowski Adam Kazanowski (c. 1599 – 25 December 1649) was a noble of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1633, Greater Crown Stolnik from 1634, Court Chamberlain (''podkomorzy koronny'') and castellan of Sandomierz from 1637, Court Marshall from ...


Footnotes


Further reading

* Miguel Conde Pazos, ''La monarquía católica y los confines orientales de la Cristianidad. Relaciones entre la case de Austria y los Vasa de Polonia'' hD thesis Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Madrid 2016 * Miguel Conde Pazos, ''El tradado de Nápoles. El encierro del príncipe Juan Casimiro y la leva de Polacos de Medina de las Torres (1638–1642)'', n:''Studia Histórica'' 33 (2011), pp. 123–139 * Miguel Conde Pazos, ''Relaciones entre los Habsburgo y los Vasa de Polonia. La embajada a Varsovia del conde de Solre y Alonso Vázquez y la firma del Tratado Familiar (1635–1660)'', n:Porfirio Sanz Camañes (ed.), ''Tiempo de cambios: guerra, diplomacia y política internacional de la Monarquía Hispánica (1648–1700)'', Madrid 2012, , pp. 283–310 * Ryszard Skowron, ''Los aliados de las esperanzas fallidas. La Casa de Austria y los Vasa de Polonia (1598–1648)'', n:José Martínez Millán, Rubén González Cuerva (eds.), ''La dinastía de los Austria. Las relaciones entre la Monarquía Católica y el Imperio'', Madrid 2011, , pp. 997–1022 * Ryszard Skowron, ''Las levas de polacos para los ejercitos espanoles en la epoca de la Guerra de los Treinta anos'', n:Enrique García Hernán, Ryszard Skowron (eds.), ''From Ireland to Poland : Northern Europe, Spain and the Early Modern World'', Valencia 2005, * Ryszard Skowron, ''Mars i Pax. Polsko-hiszpańskie relacje polityczne w latach 1632–1648'', Kraków 2013, * Ryszard Skowron, ''Olivares, Wazowie i Bałtyk. Polska w polityce zagranicznej Hiszpanii w latach 1621–1632'', Kraków 2002, * Ryszard Skowron, ''Polska w hiszpańskich planach wojny w Niderlandach. Polska wobec wielkich konfliktów w Europie nowożytnej: z dziejów dyplomacji i stosunków międzynarodowych w XV-XVIII wieku'', n:M. Nagielski (ed.), ''Z dziejów stosunków Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów ze Szwecją w XVII wieku'', Warszawa 2007, , pp. 45–46 * Ryszard Skowron, ''Preliminaria wojskowe z okresu polsko-hiszpańskich rokowań sojuszniczych w Neapolu (1639–1641)'', n:''Studia i Materiały do Historii Wojskowości'' 42 (2005), pp. 221–240


External links


Miguel Conde Pazos, ''La monarquía católica y los confines orientales de la Cristianidad'' online

Miguel Conde Pazos, ''El tradado de Nápoles'' online
{{DEFAULTSORT:Treaty of Naples (1639) 1639 treaties Thirty Years' War Treaties of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Treaties of the Spanish Empire Poland–Spain relations