Transgressive (linguistics)
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In linguistic morphology, a transgressive is a special form of
verb A verb () is a word (part of speech) that in syntax generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual descri ...
. It expresses a concurrently proceeding or following action. It is considered to be a kind of
infinitive Infinitive (abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The word is deri ...
, or
participle In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from ...
. It is often used in
Balto-Slavic languages The Balto-Slavic languages form a branch of the Indo-European family of languages, traditionally comprising the Baltic and Slavic languages. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branc ...
. Syntactically it functions as an adverbial.


Slavic languages


Czech

The transgressive (''transgresiv'' or ''přechodník'') is a form of the verb in the
Czech Czech may refer to: * Anything from or related to the Czech Republic, a country in Europe ** Czech language ** Czechs, the people of the area ** Czech culture ** Czech cuisine * One of three mythical brothers, Lech, Czech, and Rus' Places * Czech, ...
and
Slovak language Slovak () , is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group, written in Latin script. It is part of the Indo-European language family, and is one of the Slavic languages, which are part of the larger Balto-Slavic branch. Spoken by appro ...
s. Nowadays it is used only occasionally for
art Art is a diverse range of human activity, and resulting product, that involves creative or imaginative talent expressive of technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or conceptual ideas. There is no generally agreed definition of wha ...
istic purposes and in set phrases and idioms. Transgressives were still used quite widely in the literary language at the beginning of the 20th century. For example,
Jaroslav Hašek Jaroslav Hašek (; 1883–1923) was a Czech writer, humorist, satirist, journalist, bohemian and anarchist. He is best known for his novel '' The Fate of the Good Soldier Švejk during the World War'', an unfinished collection of farcical inc ...
's ''
The Good Soldier Švejk ''The Good Soldier Švejk'' () is an unfinished satirical dark comedy novel by Czech writer Jaroslav Hašek, published in 1921–1923, about a good-humored, simple-minded, middle-aged man who pretends to be enthusiastic to serve Austria-Hungar ...
'' contains many of them. The Czech language recognizes present and past transgressives (there are future transgressives as well). The present transgressive can express present or future action depending on the
aspect Aspect or Aspects may refer to: Entertainment * ''Aspect magazine'', a biannual DVD magazine showcasing new media art * Aspect Co., a Japanese video game company * Aspects (band), a hip hop group from Bristol, England * ''Aspects'' (Benny Carter ...
of the verb from which it is derived.


Examples

* ''Usednuvši u okna, začala plakat.'' (Sitting by the window, she began to cry.) – past transgressive * ''Děti, vidouce babičku, vyběhly ven.'' (The children, seeing grandma, ran out.) – present transgressive * ''Pořídí si psa, aby byla, přijdouc domů, přivítána''. (She will get a dog, in order to be welcomed by someone, whenever she comes home.) – future transgressive * ''Nedbaje svého zdraví, onemocněl.'' (He hasn't taken care of his health, so he has fallen sick.) – transgressive used as a preposition * ''Bůh – takříkajíc Pánu našemu.'' (God – is the name of our Lord.) – transgressive used as an adverb


Slovak

In Slovak, only the present transgressive form exists, and it does not inflect for gender or number.


Polish

In Polish, transgressives are usually called "adverbial participles" (''imiesłowy przysłówkowe'') and inflect neither for gender nor for number. There are two kinds of such participles: anterior (only from perfective verbs) and contemporary (only from imperfective verbs). The anterior participle (related to the Czech past transgressive) expresses an event earlier than the event described by the main clause, while the contemporary adverbial participle expresses an event simultaneous with the event described by the main clause. Nowadays, especially the anterior participle is unused in the spoken language and rare in the written language. The contemporary adverbial participle can be derived by adding the ending ''-c'' to the third-person plural present form of an imperfective verb (or by adding the ending ''-ąc'' to the present stem of an imperfective verb): * ''jeść'' "to eat (imperf.)" > 3pl ''jedzą'' "
hey Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title s ...
are eating" > ''jedząc'' "(while) eating" * ''nieść'' "to carry (imperf.)" > 3pl ''niosą'' "
hey Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title s ...
are carrying" > ''niosąc'' "(while) carrying" * ''czytać'' "to read (imperf.)" > 3pl ''czytają'' "
hey Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title s ...
are reading" > ''czytając'' "(while) reading" * ''kupować'' "to buy (imperf.)" > 3pl ''kupują'' "
hey Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title s ...
are buying" > ''kupując'' "(while) buying" The verb ''być'' "to be" is the only exception – its contemporary adverbial participle is ''będąc'' and corresponds to its future form ''będą'' "
hey Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title s ...
will be" rather than to its present form ''są'' "
hey Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title s ...
are". The anterior adverbial participle can be derived by replacing of the ending ''-ł'' in the third-person singular masculine past form of a perfective verb with the suffix ''-wszy'' (after a vowel) or ''-łszy'' (after a consonant): * ''zjeść'' "to eat (perf.)" > ''zjadł'' " eate" > ''zjadłszy'' "having eaten" * ''przynieść'' "to bring (perf.)" > ''przyniósł'' " ebrought" > ''przyniósłszy'' "having carried" * ''przeczytać'' "to read (perf.)" > ''przeczytał'' " eread" > ''przeczytawszy'' "having read" * ''kupić'' "to buy (perf.)" > ''kupił'' " ebought" > ''kupiwszy'' "having bought" * ''pchnąć'' "to push (perf.)" > ''pchnął'' " epushed" > ''pchnąwszy'' "having pushed"


Serbo-Croatian

In all varieties of
Serbo-Croatian Serbo-Croatian () – also called Serbo-Croat (), Serbo-Croat-Bosnian (SCB), Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian (BCS), and Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian (BCMS) – is a South Slavic language and the primary language of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and ...
, the transgressive forms are called "verbal adverbs" (''glagolski prilozi'', singular: ''glagolski prilog''). They are common in literature and other written works, while in spoken language simple present or past tense constructions are usually used instead. They are formed similarly to the Czech and Polish transgressives. Examples are given in
Gaj's Latin alphabet Gaj's Latin alphabet ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, Gajeva latinica, separator=" / ", Гајева латиница}, ), also known as ( sh-Cyrl, абецеда, ) or ( sh-Cyrl, гајица, link=no, ), is the form of the Latin script used for writing Serb ...
and
Ijekavian Shtokavian or Štokavian (; sh-Latn, štokavski / sh-Cyrl, italics=no, штокавски, ) is the prestige dialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and the basis of its Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin standards. ...
pronunciation.


Examples

The present verbal adverb (''glagolski prilog sadašnji'') is formed by adding the ending ''-ći'' to the third-person plural present form of an imperfective verb: * ''pjevati'' "to sing" (imperf.) > 3pl ''pjevaju'' "
hey Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title s ...
sing/are singing" > ''pjevajući'' "(while) singing" * ''ljubiti'' "to kiss" (imperf.) > 3pl ''ljube'' "
hey Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title s ...
kiss/are kissing" > ''ljubeći'' "(while) kissing" The past verbal adverb (''glagolski prilog prošli'') is formed by adding the ending ''-vši'' to the infinitive stem of a perfective verb: * ''otpjevati'' "to sing" (perf.) > ''otpjeva-'' infinitive stem > ''otpjevavši'' "having sung" * ''poljubiti'' "to kiss" (perf.) > ''poljubi-'' infinitive stem > ''poljubivši'' "having kissed" Some perfective verbs have irregular past verbal adverbs, for example ''doći'' "to come (perf.) > ''došavši'' "having come". The auxiliary verbs can be both perfective and imperfective. The verb ''biti'' "to be" has the present verbal adverb ''budući'' and the past verbal adverb ''bivši'', and the verb ''htjeti'' "to want" has the present verbal adverb ''htijući'' or ''hoteći'' and the past verbal adverb ''htjevši'' or ''hotjevši''. The past verbal adverb can also be used to describe a way how something was done, for example for the verb ''baciti'' "to throw", the past verbal form ''bacivši'' can mean "by throwing", for example ''počinio je samoubojstvo bacivši se sa zgrade'' "he committed suicide by throwing himself off the building".


Russian

In
Russian Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including: *Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and peo ...
, the transgressive (called деепричастие) is considered a participial form, which functions adverbially. It is common in written and spoken language. It indicates a ''secondary'' action, performed concurrently with the primary action. Syntactically the transgressive is felt as relating to the ''manner'' of the primary action, as adverbs of manner do. Formation of the transgressives bears similarities to the transgressives of other Slavic languages. The transgressive can be formed from a perfective or an imperfective infinitive verb lemma. The imperfective transgressive can be in the present or past tense. The perfective transgressive is in the past. The transgressive has no other inflection (beyond the tense inflection for the imperfectives).


Examples

* Imperfective lemma прыгать ('to jump', imperfective): прыгая — 'while jumping' (present), прыгав/прыгавши — 'while jumping (in the past)' (past). * Perfective lemma прыгнуть ('to jump', perfective): прыгнув/прыгнувши — 'having jumped' (past) For some of the most frequent verb lemmata, formation of the transgressive exhibits some morphological variation and irregularity, with no simple rules: * Lemma быть ('to be'): будучи — '(while) being' (present), бывши — 'having been' (past), etc. The above transgressive forms of ''to be'' can be combined with the passive participle to form periphrastic passive transgressives, though such usage is more rare.


Baltic languages

Lithuanian and Latvian have multiple transgressive forms most of which are used very actively in all types of modern speech.


Lithuanian

Lithuanian has the following transgressive forms:


The gerund

The gerund (Lith. "pusdalyvis"), used with verbs in all tenses to render an action done by the sentence subject simultaneously with the action of the main verb:


Examples

* ''Dainuodamas jis nieko negirdi.'' – While singing, he doesn't hear anything. * ''Rašydama laišką, ji visiškai pamiršo verdančią sriubą.'' – While writing a letter, she totally forgot about the boiling soup. The gerund is formed by removing the infinitive ending "-ti" and adding the suffix "-dam-", as well as endings marking gender and number: * m.sg. ''-damas'', refl. ''-damasis'' * f.sg. ''-dama'', refl. ''-damasi'' * m.pl. ''-dami'', refl. ''-damiesi'' * f.pl. ''-damos'', refl. ''-damosi''


Adverbial participles

Two adverbial participles (Lith. "padalyvis") out of four (present adverbial participle and past simple adverbial participle), used with verbs in all tenses to render an action of which the sentence subject is not the agent and which takes place simultaneously with the action of the main verb (present adverbial) or before it (past simple adverbial):


Examples

* ''Važiuojant keliu netikėtai iššoko stirna.'' (present adverbial) – While driving on the road, a roe suddenly jumped over. * ''Premijos bus išmokėtos tik sėkmingai įvykdžius projektą.'' (past adverbial) – Bonuses will be paid out only having successfully carried out the project. The adverbial participles are not conjugated and are formed by removing the ending of the respective tense and adding the suffix "-ant(is)" (present tense) or "-us(is)" (past simple tense): * present simple: ''-ant'', refl. ''-antis'' * past simple: ''-us'', refl. ''-usis''


Latvian

Latvian has the following transgressive forms:


The "-dams" participle

The "-dams" participle (Latv. "divdabjis ar ''-dams''"), used with verbs in all tenses to render an action done by the sentence subject simultaneously with the action of the main verb:


Examples

* ''Dziedādams viņš neko nedzird.'' – While singing, he doesn't hear anything. * ''Rakstīdama vēstuli, viņa pavisam aizmirsa par verdošu zupu.'' – While writing a letter, she totally forgot about the boiling soup. The "-dams" participle is formed by removing the infinitive ending "-t" and adding the suffix "-dam-", as well as endings marking gender and number: * m.sg. ''-dams'', refl. ''-damies'' * f.sg. ''-dama'', refl. ''-damās'' * m.pl. ''-dami'', refl. ''-damies'' * f.pl. ''-damas'', refl. ''-damās''


The "-ot" participle

The "-ot" participle (Latvian "divdabjis ar ''-ot''"), used with verbs in all tenses to render an action which takes place simultaneously with the action of the main verb. Contrary to the similar form in Lithuanian, "-ot" participle can be used for secondary actions performed by the sentence subject as well (in many instances a speaker is free to choose between "-dams" and "-ot" participle):


Examples

* ''Dziedot viņš neko nedzird.'' – While singing, he doesn't hear anything (The main action and the secondary action are performed by the same agent, making the choice between "-ot" and "-dams" participles free). * ''Braucot pa ceļu, pēkšņi izlēca stirna.'' – While driving on the road, a roe suddenly jumped over. (The secondary action is performed by a different agent, thus the usage of "-ot" participle is obligatory). The adverbial participles are not conjugated and are formed by taking the stem of the present tense and adding the suffix "-ot" or "-oties" (for reflexive verbs).


See also

*
Adjectival participle In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from ...
*
Adverbial participle In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from ...
*
Non-finite verb A nonfinite verb is a derivative form of a verb unlike finite verbs. Accordingly, nonfinite verb forms are inflected for neither number nor person, and they cannot perform action as the root of an independent clause. In English, nonfinite verbs in ...
*
Participle In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from ...
*
Gerund In linguistics, a gerund ( abbreviated ) is any of various nonfinite verb forms in various languages; most often, but not exclusively, one that functions as a noun. In English, it has the properties of both verb and noun, such as being modifiab ...


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Transgressive (Linguistics) Linguistic morphology