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The ''Tiangong Kaiwu'' (), or ''The Exploitation of the Works of Nature'' was a Chinese encyclopedia compiled by Song Yingxing. It was published in May 1637 with funding provided by Song's patron Tu Shaokui.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 36.Song, xiv. The ''Tiangong Kaiwu'' is an encyclopedia covering a wide range of technical issues, including the use of various gunpowder weapons. Copies of the book were very scarce in China during the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) (due to the government's establishment of
monopolies A monopoly (from Greek el, μόνος, mónos, single, alone, label=none and el, πωλεῖν, pōleîn, to sell, label=none), as described by Irving Fisher, is a market with the "absence of competition", creating a situation where a speci ...
over certain industries described in the book), but original copies of the book were preserved in Japan.


Overview

It featured detailed illustrations that were valuable for historians in understanding many early Chinese production processes. For example, illustrations for
brick-making A brickworks, also known as a brick factory, is a factory for the manufacturing of bricks, from clay or shale. Usually a brickworks is located on a clay bedrock (the most common material from which bricks are made), often with a quarry for cl ...
; one shows a kilnmaster checking the temperature of a furnace while an assistant stands by and douses the kiln to induce superficial glazing; another illustration shows a brick-maker filling a wooden mold with clay while he dresses the brick's surface with a finishing wire strung on a bow.Brook, 21. As the historian Joseph Needham points out, the vast amount of accurately drawn illustrations in this encyclopedia dwarfed the amount provided in previous Chinese encyclopedias, making it a valuable written work in the history of Chinese literature.Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 172. At the same time, the Tiangong Kaiwu broke from Chinese tradition by rarely referencing previous written work. It is instead written in a style strongly suggestive of first-hand experience. In the preface to the work, Song attributed this deviation from tradition to his poverty and low standing.


Agriculture

In the first chapter, The Growing of Grains, Song Yingxing wrote about the great necessity of rural farmers in society, and although they were emulated by tradition, were scoffed at by aristocrats throughout time. Song Yingxing began the chapter with the context of this paragraph in mind: Song wrote about the general terms used in agriculture, saying that the "hundred grains" referred to crops in general, while the "five grains" were specifically sesamum, legumes, wheat,
panicle A panicle is a much-branched inflorescence. (softcover ). Some authors distinguish it from a compound spike inflorescence, by requiring that the flowers (and fruit) be pedicellate (having a single stem per flower). The branches of a panicle are of ...
d
millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae, but some millets also ...
, and glutinous millet ( rice was not included in this, says Song, because the ancients were only used to the environment of
northern China Northern China () and Southern China () are two approximate regions within China. The exact boundary between these two regions is not precisely defined and only serve to depict where there appears to be regional differences between the climate ...
, which was devoid of rice at the time).Song, 3-4. He wrote about the meticulous and proper cultivation of each crop, as well as how to avoid agricultural disasters in the process.Song, 3-31. In aiding the text, he also provided many different drawn illustrations, including a man loosening the soil by ploughing with an ox,Song, 5. soil broken into fine particles by an ox-drawn harrow,Song, 7. men engaging in foot weeding and hand weeding of rice,Song, 9-10. a vertical
waterwheel A water wheel is a machine for converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power, often in a watermill. A water wheel consists of a wheel (usually constructed from wood or metal), with a number of blades or bucke ...
with hollow wooden cylinders dipping water into an open woodwork tub feeding an irrigation
canal Canals or artificial waterways are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g. water taxi). They carry free, calm surface fl ...
,Song, 13. a cylinder-type
chain pump The chain pump is type of a water pump in which several circular discs are positioned on an endless chain. One part of the chain dips into the water, and the chain runs through a tube, slightly bigger than the diameter of the discs. As the chain is ...
powered by a vertical waterwheel placed in a narrow, low-lying stream with a mounted rotating wheel placed at the top of an elevated plane, whereupon the cylinders fed water into an irrigation canal,Song, 15. a wooden river
dam A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, a ...
correcting the flow of water around a field of crops,Song, 16. a sluice gate controlling the flow of a water channel,Song, 17 a square-pallet chain pump powered by a horizontal waterwheel, connected by an
axle An axle or axletree is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearing ...
to a gear-tooth wheel above, which in turn engaged a vertical gear-tooth wheel,Song, 18. another square-pallet chain pump employing an ox-drawn set of geared wheels,Song, 19. two different types of foot-treadle operated chain pumps,Song, 20-21. a
counterweight A counterweight is a weight that, by applying an opposite force, provides balance and stability of a mechanical system. The purpose of a counterweight is to make lifting the load faster and more efficient, which saves energy and causes less we ...
ed
lever A lever is a simple machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or '' fulcrum''. A lever is a rigid body capable of rotating on a point on itself. On the basis of the locations of fulcrum, load and effort, the lever is ...
for raising or lowering a bucket,Song, 22. a
pulley A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that ...
-wheel for raising or lowering a bucket,Song, 25. an ox-drawn plough-seeder with a cone-shaped filter,Song, 26. an ox-drawn pair of stone rollers, used for pressing seeds into the soil,Song, 27. the simpler process of sewing seeds by hand and pressing them into the dirt by foot,Song, 28. and finally, an illustration of men cultivating wheat with broad-headed hoes.Song, 30. In another chapter, The Preparation of Grains, he also provided illustrations for rolling rice grains with a wooden ox-drawn roller,Song, 84 a crank-operated rotary-fan winnowing machine that separated
husk Husk (or hull) in botany is the outer shell or coating of a seed. In the United States, the term husk often refers to the leafy outer covering of an ear of maize (corn) as it grows on the plant. Literally, a husk or hull includes the protective ...
s,Song, 85. a hand-operated wooden hulling mill,Song, 87. a hand-operated earthen hulling machine,Song, 88. a process of sieving to separate husk-free grains,Song, 89. two types of foot-operated trip hammers,Song, 91-92. a
hydraulic Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counter ...
-powered trip hammer powered by a waterwheel that rotated an axle of overhead
cam Calmodulin (CaM) (an abbreviation for calcium-modulated protein) is a multifunctional intermediate calcium-binding messenger protein expressed in all eukaryotic cells. It is an intracellular target of the secondary messenger Ca2+, and the bin ...
s,Song, 93. a horse-drawn hulling mill,Song, 96. an oxen-drawn grinding mill,Song, 98. a grinding mill operated by a vertical waterwheel,Song, 99. and a rolling mill operated by a horizontal waterwheel, the waterwheel placed in a rushing current found under a wooden deck that rotated the axle of the stone roller above within the interior of a building.Song, 103.


Nautics

The subject of maritime and nautical technology and engineering was discussed extensively by Song Yingxing. Song noted that in northern China the chief means of transportation was by carriage and
cart A cart or dray (Australia and New Zealand) is a vehicle designed for transport, using two wheels and normally pulled by one or a pair of draught animals. A handcart is pulled or pushed by one or more people. It is different from the flatbed tr ...
, while in southern China it was by ship and
boat A boat is a watercraft of a large range of types and sizes, but generally smaller than a ship, which is distinguished by its larger size, shape, cargo or passenger capacity, or its ability to carry boats. Small boats are typically found on inl ...
.Song, 171. He provided various nuances about nautical matters, such as metal
anchor An anchor is a device, normally made of metal , used to secure a vessel to the bed of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current. The word derives from Latin ''ancora'', which itself comes from the Greek ἄγ ...
s for
battleship A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. It dominated naval warfare in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The term ''battleship'' came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type ...
s and seagoing vessels weighing up to 30,000 catties.Song 189. Song noted that there were thousands of names classifying different boats found in China, which was often named in accordance to their overall shape,
cargo Cargo consists of bulk goods conveyed by water, air, or land. In economics, freight is cargo that is transported at a freight rate for commercial gain. ''Cargo'' was originally a shipload but now covers all types of freight, including trans ...
capacity, and quality (of material used and construction). For example, he described the layout and construction of the grain tribute boat as a shallow, flat-bottom craft, with the preferred woods of cedar and chestnut being used to construct the bulkhead compartments of the
hull Hull may refer to: Structures * Chassis, of an armored fighting vehicle * Fuselage, of an aircraft * Hull (botany), the outer covering of seeds * Hull (watercraft), the body or frame of a ship * Submarine hull Mathematics * Affine hull, in affi ...
.Song, 172. Song also wrote of the methods used by the Chinese in his day for
pearl diving Pearl hunting, also known as pearling, is the activity of recovering pearls from wild molluscs, usually oysters or mussels, in the sea or freshwater. Pearl hunting was prevalent in the Persian Gulf region and Japan for thousands of years. On ...
in Guangdong.Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 668. Song wrote that these divers were able to stay underwater for prolonged periods of time since a secure rope was tied around their waists connected to the ship as they breathed through a long curving pipe that led up above the surface of the water. This long breathing tube was strengthened by rings of tin and fastened to a watertight leather face mask. A drawn illustration of this was provided in his book.Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 669. In his admiration for the stern-mounted steering
rudder A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other vehicle that moves through a fluid medium (generally air or water). On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse ya ...
(which had been known to the Chinese since at least the 1st century AD),Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 649-650. he wrote: (''Note: in this passage he speaks mostly of fresh-water ships at
Poyang Lake Poyang Lake (, Gan: Po-yong U), located in Jiujiang, is the largest freshwater lake in China. The lake is fed by the Gan, Xin, and Xiu rivers, which connect to the Yangtze through a channel. The area of Poyang Lake fluctuates dramatically be ...
and the Grand Canal''.)


Sericulture and cotton

Song Yingxing opened his chapter on clothing with the aspects of sericulture in producing silk. He gave an accurate description of the raising of
silkworms The domestic silk moth (''Bombyx mori''), is an insect from the moth family Bombycidae. It is the closest relative of ''Bombyx mandarina'', the wild silk moth. The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar of a silk moth. It is an economically ...
, along with their instinctual mating tradition.Song, 36. Those raising the silkworms had their eggs deposited on sheets of paper or cloth, and stored for use in the following year. He wrote that in some regions a bathing process was used on these sheets, employing rain water, lime water, or
brine Brine is a high-concentration solution of salt (NaCl) in water (H2O). In diverse contexts, ''brine'' may refer to the salt solutions ranging from about 3.5% (a typical concentration of seawater, on the lower end of that of solutions used for b ...
, and gave specifications on the timing for this during winter, in the 12th month of the year. The reason for this, he said, was so that the inferior eggs would die in the process, hence less
mulberry ''Morus'', a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae, consists of diverse species of deciduous trees commonly known as mulberries, growing wild and under cultivation in many temperate world regions. Generally, the genus has 64 identif ...
leaves would be consumed needlessly. He also provided specifications on how to avoid damaging the eggs in the long process of preparation before the bathing process in the 12th month.Song, 36-37. He noted the differences between two general forms of silkworms, late and early, while providing information on a wide variety in different silkworm breeds and cocoons,Song, 37. and even silkworm diseases.Song, 41. After their eventful hatching, he described the proper living conditions and environment that the silkworms should be immersed in,Song, 38. as well as the care that should be given in feeding them.Song 39-41. He warned of different sources of foul odors and smoke that had the capability of killing the silkworms if they came into contact. He described the spinning of cocoons,Song, 42. gathering of cocoons, sorting of cocoons,Song, 48. and the different pests such as birds and mosquitoes that should be avoided,Song, 42, 48. He also described the proper planting of mulberry trees and how to harvest them.Song, 38-39. For the process of making silk, he noted that raw silk could not be reeled into normal silk until a formal wadding process was done. He described the reeling of silk fabric with a reeling machine,Song 48-49. the
spooling In computing, spooling is a specialized form of multi-programming for the purpose of copying data between different devices. In contemporary systems, it is usually used for mediating between a computer application and a slow peripheral, such a ...
of silk fibers,Song, 49-50. the spinning of silk fibers into weft yarns, the silken threads drawn into a warp frame for weaving,Song, 50. and the "ingenious" works of figure designing.Song, 56. He also described the proper dimensions of different draw looms,Song, 55-56. Song Yingxing wrote that although silk was reserved for those with economic means, both rich and poor used cotton clothing during the winter.Song, 60. In ancient times, he said, cotton was called ''xima'' ('nettle- hemp'). He outlined two different types of cotton and their characteristics: tree cotton (Ceiba pentandra) and the cotton plant (Gossypium indicum). He noted their planting in spring and their picking by autumn, as well as use of a
cotton gin A cotton gin—meaning "cotton engine"—is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, enabling much greater productivity than manual cotton separation.. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (); ...
to separate cotton seeds that are naturally tightly fastened to fiber bolls of cotton.Song, 60-61. He noted the process of straightening the cotton fibers with wooden boards, which prepared them for the spinning wheel, the "slivers drawn out to desired size and twisted into yarns." After describing the weaving process of cotton and the different patterns used, he also described cotton padding during winter, in ancient times it was hemp padding, and that the rich could afford silk padding in their winter attire.Song, 63. In addition to these he also described different
fur Fur is a thick growth of hair that covers the skin of mammals. It consists of a combination of oily guard hair on top and thick underfur beneath. The guard hair keeps moisture from reaching the skin; the underfur acts as an insulating blanket ...
, woolen, and
felt Felt is a textile material that is produced by matting, condensing and pressing fibers together. Felt can be made of natural fibers such as wool or animal fur, or from synthetic fibers such as petroleum-based acrylic or acrylonitrile or wood ...
clothing.Song, 63-70.


Metallurgy, casting, and forging

In China, the 'five
metal A metal (from Greek μέταλλον ''métallon'', "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typica ...
s' were gold, silver, copper, iron, and tin, although the term could be extended in general terms to any sort of metal.Song, 257. He wrote of how gold was held to be the most precious metal of them all, and that it could be obtained in the mountains, panned from river sand, and from underground mining.Song, 236. He also outlined the different grades of gold and its malleable qualities. To eliminate trace elements of other metals found in gold
alloy An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. Unlike chemical compounds with metallic bases, an alloy will retain all the properties of a metal in the resulting material, such as electrical conductivity, ductility, ...
s, Song Yingxing outlined the use of a
crucible A crucible is a ceramic or metal container in which metals or other substances may be melted or subjected to very high temperatures. While crucibles were historically usually made from clay, they can be made from any material that withstands t ...
technique.Song, 237. Song Yingxing wrote that ancient rulers of early China cast inscriptions of writing onto
bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such ...
tripods since this was a much more durable method of preserving the written record than using the perishable materials found in books and scrolls.Song, 159-160. He noted that musical and announcing bells of higher quality were made of different copper alloys, while those of lesser quality were made of iron.Song, 160. He also provided weighted formulas of different metal compositions for certain bells, for example, the casting a large bell in an audience hall or pavilion that required 47,000 catties of copper, 4,000 catties of tin, 50 oz. of gold, and 120 oz. of silver in its composition. In the smelting process, long pits for the liquid metal flow had to be dug, having a drymold construction of lime and mortar that was dried and covered in ox fat and
beeswax Beeswax (''cera alba'') is a natural wax produced by honey bees of the genus ''Apis''. The wax is formed into scales by eight wax-producing glands in the abdominal segments of worker bees, which discard it in or at the hive. The hive worker ...
. Then he noted the following process of pounded earth and
charcoal Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, cal ...
powder that was screened and mixed into a mud paste that would be gradually spread on the surface of the wax several inches thick.Song 162. When dried and heated so that the melted fat and wax could flow out entirely by means of apertures at the base, the bell or tripod could be cast in the vacated cavity between the core and the mold. With the individual casting process for bells and tripods, Song Yingxing also described the intricate individual casting processes for making cooking pots and pans,Song, 163. metal
statue A statue is a free-standing sculpture in which the realistic, full-length figures of persons or animals are carved or cast in a durable material such as wood, metal or stone. Typical statues are life-sized or close to life-size; a sculpture t ...
s, metal barrels of
cannon A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during ...
s,Song, 165. metallic mirrors, and different metallic coins of copper or iron.Song, 165-169. He described the processes of hammer forging with the initial casting of an anvil, and noted that in the heating process of forging,
coal Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal is formed when dead ...
accounted for 70% of the fuel, charcoal taking the rest at 30%. He also outlined the quench-hardening process of rapid cooling in clear water immediately after iron and steel products were forged.Song, 190. He outlined the different types of knives, axes, hoes,Song, 191. file tools, awls,Song, 192.
saw A saw is a tool consisting of a tough blade, wire, or chain with a hard toothed edge. It is used to cut through material, very often wood, though sometimes metal or stone. The cut is made by placing the toothed edge against the material and mo ...
s, wood chisels,Song, 196.
anchor An anchor is a device, normally made of metal , used to secure a vessel to the bed of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current. The word derives from Latin ''ancora'', which itself comes from the Greek ἄγ ...
s, and metal needlesSong, 196-197 that could be forged and produced. For the making of the finest swords, he said, they are coated with steel after "a hundred smeltings," but the core of the sword was still made of wrought iron; this was because a sword made entirely of steel would easily break when making hard strikes.


Sulfur and saltpetre

There were many manufacturing processes described in the ''Tiangong Kaiwu''. For example, for roasting iron
pyrite The mineral pyrite (), or iron pyrite, also known as fool's gold, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula Fe S2 (iron (II) disulfide). Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide mineral. Pyrite's metallic luster and pale brass-yellow hue giv ...
in converting
sulphide Sulfide (British English also sulphide) is an inorganic anion of sulfur with the chemical formula S2− or a compound containing one or more S2− ions. Solutions of sulfide salts are corrosive. ''Sulfide'' also refers to chemical compounds lar ...
to oxide in sulfur used in gunpowder compositions, the book illustrated how ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthen furnace with a still-head that sent over sulfur as
vapor In physics, a vapor (American English) or vapour (British English and Canadian English; see spelling differences) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature,R. H. Petrucci, W. S. Harwood, and F. G. Her ...
that would solidify and
crystallize Crystallization is the process by which solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal. Some ways by which crystals form are precipitating from a solution, freezing, or more rarely depo ...
.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 126. For the preparation of
saltpetre Potassium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . This alkali metal nitrate salt is also known as Indian saltpetre (large deposits of which were historically mined in India). It is an ionic salt of potassium ions K+ and nitra ...
, Song Yingxing wrote:


Gunpowder weapons

Many of the gunpowder weapons that Song Yingxing described were similar to those in the Chinese '' Huolongjing'' of the earlier 14th century, although there are many noted differences between the two. For example, the ''Huolongjing'' described a
land mine A land mine is an explosive device concealed under or on the ground and designed to destroy or disable enemy targets, ranging from combatants to vehicles and tanks, as they pass over or near it. Such a device is typically detonated automatic ...
that was triggered by motion of the enemy above, with a pin release that let down falling weights which would use rope and axle to rotate a flint steel-wheel which in turn sent sparks onto a train of fuses for the mines.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 199. It also described an explosive naval mine that was timed by a fuse and sent down river to an enemy ship.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 205. However, it was the ''Tiangong Kaiwu'' of Song Yingxing that outlined the use of a rip-cord pulled from ambushers hidden on a nearby shore that would trigger the steel-wheel mechanism in producing sparks for the naval mine placed in the river or lake. Song Yingxing also outlined the different types of metals that were preferable in casting different types of handguns and
cannon A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during ...
s.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 339 F. Song Yingxing described a 'match for ten thousand armies' bomb as follows: The historian Needham notes that Song Yingxing must not have been much of a military man with extensive knowledge of martial matters, due to his enthusiasm for this archaic type of bomb that had been used by the Chinese since the Song Dynasty in the 12th century.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 166


Gallery

Image:Tiangong Kaiwu Pulley Wheel.jpg, A farmer operating a
pulley A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that ...
wheel to lift a bucket Image:Tiangong Kaiwu Raising Brine Salt Well.gif, Raising
brine Brine is a high-concentration solution of salt (NaCl) in water (H2O). In diverse contexts, ''brine'' may refer to the salt solutions ranging from about 3.5% (a typical concentration of seawater, on the lower end of that of solutions used for b ...
from the bottom of a
salt well A salt well (or brine well) is used to mine salt from caverns or deposits. Water is used as a solution to dissolve the salt or halite deposits so that they can be extracted by pipe to an evaporation process, which results in a brine or dry produc ...
Image:Tiangong Kaiwu Roll Crusher.jpg, Crushing cane with an ox-powered vertical-toothed roll crusher for extracting
cane juice Sugarcane juice is the liquid extracted from pressed sugarcane. It is consumed as a beverage in many places, especially where sugarcane is commercially grown, such as Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, North Africa, and Latin America. Sug ...
Image:Tiangong Kaiwu Coal Mining.gif, Chinese
coal mining Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its energy content and since the 1880s has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron fro ...
Image:Tiangong Kaiwu Grinding Mill.gif, An oxen-driven grinding mill Image:Tiangong Kaiwu Chain Pumps2.jpg, Foot- treadle operated and ox-driven irrigation
chain pump The chain pump is type of a water pump in which several circular discs are positioned on an endless chain. One part of the chain dips into the water, and the chain runs through a tube, slightly bigger than the diameter of the discs. As the chain is ...
s Image:Winnowing machine.jpg, Rotary fan winnowing machine separating husks from the grain Image:Casting a Tripod, Bell, and Statue.jpg, Casting a tripod, bell, and statue Image:ChineseSeedDrill1637.jpg, Agricultural
seed drill A seed drill is a device used in agriculture that sows seeds for crops by positioning them in the soil and burying them to a specific depth while being dragged by a tractor. This ensures that seeds will be distributed evenly. The seed drill sow ...
pulled by an ox Image:ChineseIronPlow1637.jpg, Iron plow


Notes


References

* Brook, Timothy. (1998). '' The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China''. Berkeley: University of California Press. *Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. *Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. *Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic''. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. *Song, Yingxing, translated with preface by E-Tu Zen Sun and Shiou-Chuan Sun (1966). ''T'ien-Kung K'ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century''. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. {{Authority control Chinese encyclopedias 1637 books 17th-century encyclopedias