HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Theosophy is a
religion Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatur ...
established in the United States during the late 19th century. It was founded primarily by the Russian Helena Blavatsky and draws its teachings predominantly from Blavatsky's writings. Categorized by scholars of religion as both a
new religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or Spirituality, spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in ...
and as part of the occultist stream of
Western esotericism Western esotericism, also known as esotericism, esoterism, and sometimes the Western mystery tradition, is a term scholars use to categorise a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements that developed within Western society. These ideas ...
, it draws upon both older European philosophies such as
Neoplatonism Neoplatonism is a strand of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a chain of thinkers. But there are some ...
and Asian religions such as
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
and
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
. As presented by Blavatsky, Theosophy teaches that there is an ancient and secretive brotherhood of spiritual adepts known as the Masters, who—although found around the world—are centered in
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
. These Masters are alleged by Blavatsky to have cultivated great wisdom and supernatural powers, and Theosophists believe that it was they who initiated the modern Theosophical movement through disseminating their teachings via Blavatsky. They believe that these Masters are attempting to revive knowledge of an ancient religion once found around the world and which will again come to eclipse the existing world religions. Theosophical groups nevertheless do not refer to their system as a "religion". Theosophy preaches the existence of a single, divine
Absolute Absolute may refer to: Companies * Absolute Entertainment, a video game publisher * Absolute Radio, (formerly Virgin Radio), independent national radio station in the UK * Absolute Software Corporation, specializes in security and data risk manag ...
. It promotes an emanationist cosmology in which the universe is perceived as outward reflections from this Absolute. Theosophy teaches that the purpose of human life is spiritual emancipation and says that the human
soul In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being". Etymology The Modern English noun '' soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest att ...
undergoes
reincarnation Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrectio ...
upon bodily death according to a process of
karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively ...
. It promotes values of universal brotherhood and social improvement, although it does not stipulate particular ethical codes. Theosophy was established in
New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
in 1875 with the founding of the
Theosophical Society The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, is a worldwide body with the aim to advance the ideas of Theosophy in continuation of previous Theosophists, especially the Greek and Alexandrian Neo-Platonic philosophers dating back to 3rd century CE ...
by Blavatsky and Americans Henry Olcott and William Quan Judge. In the early 1880s, Blavatsky and Olcott relocated to India, where they established the Society's headquarters at Adyar,
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a state in southern India. It is the tenth largest Indian state by area and the sixth largest by population. Its capital and largest city is Chennai. Tamil Nadu is the home of the Tamil people, whose Tamil language ...
. Blavatsky described her ideas in two books, ''
Isis Unveiled ''Isis Unveiled: A Master-Key to the Mysteries of Ancient and Modern Science and Theology'', published in 1877, is a book of esoteric philosophy and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky's first major work and a key text in her Theosophical movement. The ...
'' and ''
The Secret Doctrine ''The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis of Science, Religion and Philosophy'', is a pseudo-scientific esoteric book originally published as two volumes in 1888 written by Helena Blavatsky. The first volume is named ''Cosmogenesis'', the second ''A ...
''. Following Blavatsky's death in 1891, there was a schism in the Society, with Judge leading the
Theosophical Society in America The Theosophical Society in America (TSA) is a member-based nonprofit organization dedicated to the teaching of Theosophy and affiliated with the international Theosophical Society based in Adyar, Chennai, India. The name "Theosophical Society in ...
to split from the international organization. Under Judge's successor
Katherine Tingley Katherine Augusta Westcott Tingley (July 6, 1847 - July 11, 1929) was a social worker and prominent Theosophist. She led the American Section of the Theosophical Society after W. Q. Judge. She founded and led the Theosophical community Lomala ...
, a Theosophical community named
Lomaland Lomaland was a Theosophical community located in Point Loma in San Diego, California from 1900 to 1942. Theosophical Society leader Katherine Tingley founded it in 1900 as a school, cultural center, and residential facility for her followers. ...
was established in
San Diego San Diego ( , ; ) is a city on the Pacific Ocean coast of Southern California located immediately adjacent to the Mexico–United States border. With a 2020 population of 1,386,932, it is the eighth most populous city in the United States ...
. The Adyar-based Society was later taken over by
Annie Besant Annie Besant ( Wood; 1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was a British socialist, theosophist, freemason, women's rights activist, educationist, writer, orator, political party member and philanthropist. Regarded as a champion of human ...
, under whom it grew to its largest extent during the late 1920s, before going into decline. The Theosophical movement still exists, although in much smaller form than in its heyday. Theosophy played a significant role in bringing knowledge of South Asian religions to Western countries, as well as in encouraging cultural pride in various South Asian nations. A variety of prominent artists and writers have also been influenced by Theosophical teachings. Theosophy has an international following, and during the 20th century had tens of thousands of adherents. Theosophical ideas have also exerted an influence on a wide range of other esoteric movements and philosophies, among them Anthroposophy, the
Church Universal and Triumphant The Church Universal and Triumphant (CUT) is an international New Age religious organization founded in 1975 by Elizabeth Clare Prophet. It is an outgrowth (and is now the corporate parent) of The Summit Lighthouse, founded in 1958 by Prophet' ...
, and the
New Age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars consi ...
.


Definition

Theosophy's founder, the Russian Helena Blavatsky, insisted that it was not a religion, although she did refer to it as the modern transmission of the "once-universal religion" that she said had existed deep into the human past. That Theosophy should not be labeled a religion is a belief that has been maintained by Theosophical organizations, who instead regard it as a system that embraces what they see as the "essential truth" underlying religion, philosophy, and science. As a result, Theosophical groups allow their members to hold other religious allegiances, resulting in Theosophists who also identify as Christians, Buddhists, or Hindus. Scholars of religion who have studied Theosophy have characterized it as a religion. In his history of the Theosophical movement, Bruce F. Campbell noted that Theosophy promoted "a religious world-view" using "explicitly religious terms" and that its central tenets are not unequivocal fact, but rather rely on belief. Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein termed it "one of the modern world's most important religious traditions". Various scholars have pointed to its eclectic nature;
Joscelyn Godwin Joscelyn Godwin (born 16 January 1945 at Kelmscott, Oxfordshire, England) is a composer, musicologist, and translator, known for his work on ancient music, paganism, and music in the occult. Biography He was educated as a chorister at Chris ...
described it as a "universally eclectic religious movement", while scholar J. Jeffrey Franklin characterized Theosophy as a "hybrid religion" for its syncretic combination of elements from various other sources. More specifically, Theosophy has been categorized as a
new religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or Spirituality, spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in ...
. Scholars have also classified Theosophy as a form of
Western esotericism Western esotericism, also known as esotericism, esoterism, and sometimes the Western mystery tradition, is a term scholars use to categorise a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements that developed within Western society. These ideas ...
. Campbell for instance referred to it as "an esoteric religious tradition", while the historian Joy Dixon called it an "esoteric religion". More specifically, it is considered a form of occultism. Along with other groups like the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Theosophical Society has been seen as part of an "occult revival" that took place in Western countries during the late 19th century. The historian of religion Wouter Hanegraaff noted that Theosophy helped to establish the "essential foundations for much of twentieth-century esotericism". Although Theosophy draws upon Indian religious beliefs, the sociologist of religion Christopher Partridge observed that "Theosophy is fundamentally Western. That is to say, Theosophy is not Eastern thought in the West, but Western thought with an Eastern flavour."


Etymology

At a meeting of the Miracle Club in
New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
on 7 September 1875, Blavatsky, Olcott, and Judge agreed to establish an organisation, with Charles Sotheran suggesting that they call it the
Theosophical Society The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, is a worldwide body with the aim to advance the ideas of Theosophy in continuation of previous Theosophists, especially the Greek and Alexandrian Neo-Platonic philosophers dating back to 3rd century CE ...
. Prior to adopting the name "Theosophical", they had debated various potential names, among them the Egyptological Society, the Hermetic Society, and the Rosicrucian Society. The term was not new, but had been previously used in various contexts by the Philaletheians and the Christian mystic
Jakob Böhme Jakob Böhme (; ; 24 April 1575 – 17 November 1624) was a German philosopher, Christian mystic, and Lutheran Protestant theologian. He was considered an original thinker by many of his contemporaries within the Lutheran tradition, and his firs ...
. Etymologically, the term came from the Greek ("god(s)") and ("wisdom"), thus meaning "god-wisdom", "divine wisdom", or "wisdom of God". The term appeared (in both Greek and Latin) in the works of early
church fathers The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical per ...
, as a synonym for
theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing th ...
. In her book '' The Key to Theosophy'', Blavatsky said that the term ''Theosophy'' had been coined by "the Alexandrian philosophers", especially
Ammonius Saccas Ammonius Saccas (; grc-gre, Ἀμμώνιος Σακκᾶς; 175 AD242 AD) was a Hellenistic Platonist self-taught philosopher from Alexandria, generally regarded as the precursor of Neoplatonism and/or one of its founders. He is mainly known a ...
. Blavatsky's Theosophy is not the only movement to use the term "theosophy" and this has resulted in scholarly attempts to differentiate the different currents. Godwin drew a division by referring to Blavatskian Theosophy with a capital letter and older, Boehmian theosophy with a lower-case letter. Alternately, the scholar of esotericism
Wouter J. Hanegraaff Wouter Jacobus Hanegraaff (born 10 April 1961) is full professor of History of Hermetic Philosophy and related currents at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. He served as the first president of the European Society for the Study of W ...
distinguished the Blavatskian movement from its older namesake by terming it "modern Theosophy". Followers of Blavatsky's movement are known as Theosophists, while adherents of the older tradition are termed theosophers. Causing some confusion, a few Theosophists – such as C. C. Massey – were also theosophers. In the early years of Blavatsky's movement, some critics referred to it as "Neo-Theosophy" to differentiate it from the older Christian theosophy movement. The term " Neo-Theosophy" would later be adopted within the modern Theosophical movement itself, where it was used—largely pejoratively—to describe the teachings promoted by
Annie Besant Annie Besant ( Wood; 1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was a British socialist, theosophist, freemason, women's rights activist, educationist, writer, orator, political party member and philanthropist. Regarded as a champion of human ...
and
Charles Webster Leadbeater Charles Webster Leadbeater (; 16 February 1854 – 1 March 1934) was a member of the Theosophical Society, Co-Freemasonry, author on occult subjects and co-initiator with J. I. Wedgwood of the Liberal Catholic Church. Originally a p ...
by those who opposed their innovations. According to the scholar of religion James A. Santucci, discerning what the term "Theosophy" meant to the early Theosophists is "not as obvious as one might think". As used by Olcott, the term "Theosophy" appeared to be applied to an approach that emphasized experimentation as a means of learning about the "Unseen Universe"; conversely, Blavatsky used the term in reference to gnosis regarding said information.


Beliefs and teachings

Although the writings of prominent Theosophists lay out a set of teachings, the Theosophical Society itself states that it has no official beliefs with which all members must agree. It therefore has doctrine but does not present this as dogma. The Society stated that the only tenet to which all members should subscribe was a commitment "to form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Humanity without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color". This means that there were members of the Theosophical Society who were skeptical about many, or even all, of the Theosophical doctrines, while remaining sympathetic to its basic aim of universal brotherhood. As noted by Santucci, Theosophy is "derived primarily from the writings" of Blavatsky, however revisions and innovations have also been produced by subsequent Theosophists like Annie Besant and Charles Leadbeater. Blavatsky said that these Theosophical doctrines were not her own invention, but had been received from a brotherhood of secretive spiritual adepts whom she referred to as the "Masters" or "Mahatmas".


The Masters

Central to Theosophical belief is the idea that a group of spiritual adepts known as the Masters not only exist but were responsible for the production of early Theosophical texts. For most Theosophists, these Masters are deemed to be the real founders of the modern Theosophical movement. In Theosophical literature, these Masters are also referred to as the Mahatmas, Adepts, Masters of Wisdom, Masters of Compassion, and Elder Brothers. They are perceived to be a fraternity of human men who are highly evolved, both in terms of having an advanced moral development and intellectual attainment. They are said to have achieved extra-long life spans, and to have gained supernatural powers, including clairvoyance and the ability to instantly project their soul out of their body to any other location. These are powers that they have allegedly attained through many years of training. According to Blavatsky, by the late 19th century their chief residence was in the Himalayan kingdom of
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
. She also said that these Masters were the source of many of her published writings. The Masters are believed to preserve the world's ancient spiritual knowledge, and to represent a Great White Brotherhood or White Lodge which watches over humanity and guides its evolution. Among those whom the early Theosophists believed as Masters were Biblical figures like
Abraham Abraham, ; ar, , , name=, group= (originally Abram) is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Je ...
,
Moses Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu ( Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pr ...
,
Solomon Solomon (; , ),, ; ar, سُلَيْمَان, ', , ; el, Σολομών, ; la, Salomon also called Jedidiah (Hebrew language, Hebrew: , Modern Hebrew, Modern: , Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: ''Yăḏīḏăyāh'', "beloved of Yahweh, Yah"), ...
, and
Jesus Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label= Hebrew/ Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and relig ...
, Asian religious figures like
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
,
Confucius Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
, and
Laozi Laozi (), also known by numerous other names, was a semilegendary ancient Chinese Taoist philosopher. Laozi ( zh, ) is a Chinese honorific, generally translated as "the Old Master". Traditional accounts say he was born as in the state ...
, and modern individuals like Jakob Bohme,
Alessandro Cagliostro Count Alessandro di Cagliostro (, ; 2 June 1743 – 26 August 1795) was the alias of the Italian occultist Giuseppe Balsamo (; in French usually referred to as Joseph Balsamo). Cagliostro was an Italian adventurer and self-styled magician ...
, and
Franz Mesmer Franz Anton Mesmer (; ; 23 May 1734 – 5 March 1815) was a German physician with an interest in astronomy. He theorised the existence of a natural energy transference occurring between all animated and inanimate objects; this he called " ani ...
. However, the most prominent Masters to appear in Theosophical literature are Koot Hoomi (sometimes spelled Kuthumi) and Morya, with whom Blavatsky said to be in contact. According to Theosophical belief, the Masters approach those deemed worthy to embark on an apprenticeship or ''chelaship''. The apprentice would then undergo several years of probation, during which they must live a life of physical purity, remaining chaste, abstinent, and indifferent to physical luxury. Blavatsky encouraged the production of images of the Masters. The most important portraits of the Masters to be produced were created in 1884 by Hermann Schmiechen. According to scholar of religion
Massimo Introvigne Massimo Introvigne (born June 14, 1955, in Rome) is an Italian Roman Catholic sociologist of religionJason Horowitz"A Clash of Worldviews as Pope Meets Putin" ''The New York Times'', July 4, 2019. and intellectual property attorney. He is a fou ...
, Schmiechen's images of Morya and Koot Humi gained "semi-canonical status" in the Theosophical community, being regarded as sacred objects rather than simply decorative images. Campbell noted that for non-Theosophists, the beliefs regarding the existence of the Masters are among the weakest made by the movement. Such statements are open to examination and potential refutation, with challenges to the existence of the Masters therefore undermining Theosophical beliefs. The idea of a brotherhood of secret adepts had a long pedigree stretching back several centuries before the foundation of Theosophy; such ideas can be found in the work of the
Rosicrucians Rosicrucianism is a spiritual and cultural movement that arose in Europe in the early 17th century after the publication of several texts purported to announce the existence of a hitherto unknown esoteric order to the world and made seeking it ...
, and was popularized in the fictional literature of
Edward Bulwer-Lytton Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton, PC (25 May 180318 January 1873) was an English writer and politician. He served as a Whig member of Parliament from 1831 to 1841 and a Conservative from 1851 to 1866. He was Secre ...
. The idea of having messages conveyed to a medium through spiritually advanced entities had also been popularized at the time of Theosophy's foundation through the Spiritualist movement.


The ancient wisdom religion

According to Blavatsky's teachings, many of the world's religions have their origins in a universal ancient religion, a "secret doctrine" that was known to
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
and early Hindu sages and which continues to underpin the center of every religion. She promoted the idea that ancient societies exhibited a unity of science and religion that humanity has since lost, with their achievements and knowledge being far in excess of what modern scholars believe about them. Blavatsky also taught that a secret brotherhood has conserved this ancient wisdom religion throughout the centuries, and that members of this fraternity hold the key to understanding miracles, the afterlife, and psychic phenomena, and that moreover, these adepts themselves have paranormal powers. She stated that this ancient religion would be revived and spread throughout humanity in the future, replacing dominant world religions like
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
,
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...
,
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
, and
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
. Theosophy tended to emphasize the importance of ancient texts over the popular ritual and custom found within various religious traditions. The Theosophical depiction of Buddhism and Hinduism, however, drew criticism both from practitioners of orthodox Buddhist and Hindu traditions, as well as from Western scholars of these traditions, such as
Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic disciplines of Indian ...
, who believed that Theosophists like Blavatsky were misrepresenting the Asian traditions.


Theology and cosmology

Theosophy promotes an emanationist cosmology, promoting the belief that the universe is an outward reflection from the Absolute. Theosophy presents the idea that the world as humans perceive it is illusory, or '' maya'', an idea that it draws from Asian religions. Accordingly, Blavatsky taught that a life limited by the perception of this illusory world was ignorant and deluded. According to Blavatsky's teaching, every
solar system The Solar System Capitalization of the name varies. The International Astronomical Union, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects but uses mixed "Solar ...
in the universe is the expression of what is termed a "Logos" or "Solar Deity". Ranked below this Solar Deity are seven ministers or planetary spirits, with each of these celestial beings being in control of evolution on a particular planet. In ''The Secret Doctrine'', Blavatsky stated that each planet had a sevenfold constitution, known as the "Planetary Chains"; these consist not only of a physical globe but also of two astral bodies, two mental bodies, and two spiritual bodies, all overlapping in the same space. According to Blavatsky, evolution occurs on descending and ascending arcs, from the first spiritual globe on to the first mental globe, then from the first astral globe to the first physical globe, and then on from there. She said that there were different levels of evolution, from mineral on to vegetable, animal, human, and then to superhuman or spiritual. Different levels of evolution occur in a successive order on each planet; thus when mineral evolution ends on the first planet and it proceeds on to vegetable evolution, then mineral evolution begins on the second planet. Theosophy teaches that human evolution is tied in with this planetary and wider cosmic evolution. In ''The Secret Doctrine'', Blavatsky advocated the idea of seven " Root Races", each of which was divided into seven Sub-Races. In Blavatsky's cosmogony, the first Root Race were created from pure spirit, and lived on a continent known as the "Imperishable Sacred Land". The second Root Race, known as the Hyperboreans, were also formed from pure spirit, and lived on a land near to the
North Pole The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is called the True North Pole to distinguish from the Ma ...
, which then had a mild climate. The third lived on the continent of
Lemuria Lemuria (), or Limuria, was a continent proposed in 1864 by zoologist Philip Sclater, theorized to have sunk beneath the Indian Ocean, later appropriated by occultists in supposed accounts of human origins. The theory was discredited with the d ...
, which Blavatsky alleged survives today as Australia and Rapa Nui. Blavatsky alleged that during the fourth Round of the Earth, higher beings descended to the planet, with the beginnings of human physical bodies developing, and the sexes separating. At this point, the fourth Root Race appeared, living on the continent of Atlantis; they had physical bodies but also psychic powers and advanced technology. She said that some Atlanteans were giants, and built such ancient monuments as
Stonehenge Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England, west of Amesbury. It consists of an outer ring of vertical sarsen standing stones, each around high, wide, and weighing around 25 tons, topped by connec ...
in southern England, and that they also mated with "she-animals", resulting in the creation of
gorillas Gorillas are herbivorous, predominantly ground-dwelling great apes that inhabit the tropical forests of equatorial Africa. The genus ''Gorilla'' is divided into two species: the eastern gorilla and the western gorilla, and either four or fi ...
and chimpanzees. The Atlanteans were decadent and abused their power and knowledge, so Atlantis sank into the sea, although various Atlanteans escaped, and created new societies in Egypt and the Americas. The fifth Root Race to emerge was the Aryans, and was found around the world at the time she was writing. She believed that the fifth Race would come to be replaced by the sixth, which would be heralded by the arrival of
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit: ) or Metteyya (Pali: ), also Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha, is regarded as the future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. As the 5th and final Buddha of the current kalpa, Maitreya's teachings will be aimed a ...
, a figure from Mahayana Buddhist mythology. She further believed that humanity would eventually develop into the final, seventh Root Race. At this, she stated that humanity will have reached the end of its evolutionary cycle and life will withdraw from the Earth. Lachman suggested that by reading Blavatsky's cosmogonical beliefs as a literal account of history, "we may be doing it a disservice." He instead suggested that it could be read as Blavatsky's attempt to formulate "a new myth for the modern age, or as a huge, fantastic science fiction story".


Maitreya and messianism

Blavatsky taught that Lord Maitreya—a figure she borrowed from Buddhism —would come to Earth as a messianic figure. Her ideas on this were expanded upon by Besant and Leadbeater. They said that Maitreya had previously incarnated onto the Earth as
Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...
, a figure from Hinduism. They also said that he had entered
Jesus of Nazareth Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religiou ...
at the time of the latter's baptism, and that henceforth Maitreya would be known as "the Christ". Besant and Leadbeater said that Maitreya would again come to Earth by manifesting through an Indian boy named
Jiddu Krishnamurti Jiddu Krishnamurti (; 11 May 1895 – 17 February 1986) was a philosopher, speaker and writer. In his early life, he was groomed to be the new World Teacher, an advanced spiritual position in the theosophical tradition, but later rejected th ...
, whom Leadbeater had encountered playing on a beach at Adyar in 1909. The introduction of the Krishnamurti belief into Theosophy has been identified as a
millenarian Millenarianism or millenarism (from Latin , "containing a thousand") is the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a coming fundamental transformation of society, after which "all things will be changed". Millenarian ...
element.


Personal development and reincarnation

According to Theosophy, the purpose of human life is the spiritual emancipation of the soul. The human individual is described as an "Ego" or "Monad" and believed to have emanated from the Solar Deity, to whom it will also eventually return. The human being is presented as composed of seven parts, while operating on three separate planes of being. As presented by Sinnett and often repeated in Theosophical literature, these seven parts are the Body (''Rupa''), Vitality (''Prana-Jiva''), the Astral Body (''Linga Sarira''), the Animal Soul (''Kama-Rupa''), the Human Soul (''Manas''), the Spiritual Soul (''Buddhi''), and the Spirit (''Atma''). According to Theosophical teaching, it is the latter three of these components that are immortal, while the other aspects perish following bodily death. Theosophy teaches that the Spiritual Soul and the Spirit do not reside within the human body alongside the other components, but that they are connected to it through the human soul. In ''The Voice of the Silence'', Blavatsky said that within each individual human there is an eternal, divine facet, which she referred to as "the Master", the "uncreate", the "inner God", and the "higher self". She promoted the idea that uniting with this "higher self" results in wisdom. In that same book, she compared the progress of the human soul to a transition through three halls; the first was that of ignorance, which is the state of the soul before it understands the need to unite with its higher self. The second is the Hall of Learning, in which the individual becomes aware of other facets of human life but is distracted by an interest in psychic powers. The third is the Hall of Wisdom, in which union with the higher self is made; this is then followed by the Vale of Bliss. At this point the human soul can merge into the One.


Reincarnation and karma

Throughout her writings, Blavatsky made a variety of statements about rebirth and the afterlife, and there is a discrepancy between her earlier and later teachings on the subject. Between the 1870s and circa 1882, Blavatsky taught a doctrine called "metempsychosis". In ''Isis Unveiled'', Blavatsky stated that on bodily death, the human soul progresses through more spiritual planes. Two years later, she introduced the idea of
reincarnation Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrectio ...
into Theosophical doctrine, using it to replace her metempsychosis doctrine. In ''The Secret Doctrine'', she stated that the spirit was immortal and would repeatedly incarnate into a new, mortal soul and body on Earth. According to Theosophical teaching, human spirits will always be reborn into human bodies, and not into those of any other life forms. Blavatsky stated that spirits would not be reborn until some time after bodily death, and never during the lifetime of the deceased's relatives. Blavatsky taught that on the death of the body, the astral body survives for a time in a state called kama-loka, which she compared to limbo, before also dying. According to this belief, the human then moves into its mental body in a realm called devachan, which she compared to
Heaven Heaven or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the belie ...
or
paradise In religion, paradise is a place of exceptional happiness and delight. Paradisiacal notions are often laden with pastoral imagery, and may be cosmogonical or eschatological or both, often compared to the miseries of human civilization: in para ...
. Blavatsky taught that the soul remained in devachan for 1000 to 1500 years, although the Theosophist
Charles Webster Leadbeater Charles Webster Leadbeater (; 16 February 1854 – 1 March 1934) was a member of the Theosophical Society, Co-Freemasonry, author on occult subjects and co-initiator with J. I. Wedgwood of the Liberal Catholic Church. Originally a p ...
said that it was only 200. Theosophy espouses the existence of
karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively ...
as a system which regulates the cycle of reincarnation, ensuring that an individual's actions in one life affect the circumstances of their next one. This belief therefore seeks to explain why misery and suffering exist in the world, attributing any misfortune that someone suffers as punishment for misdeeds that they perpetrated in a prior life. In Blavatsky's words, karma and reincarnation were "inextricably interwoven". However, she did not believe that karma had always been the system that governed reincarnation; she believed that it came into being when humans developed egos, and that one day will also no longer be required. Besant and Leadbeater said they were able to investigate people's past lives through reading the akashic record, an etheric store of all the knowledge of the universe. They, for instance, stated to have attained knowledge of their own past lives as monkey-like creatures residing on the moon, where they served as pets to the "Moon-man" (a prior incarnation of the Master Morya), his wife (Koot Humi), and their child (the Lord Maitreya). When they were attacked by "savages" and animals "resembling furry lizards and crocodiles", Besant sacrificed herself to save Morya, and for that act made the karmic evolutionary leap to becoming a human in her next incarnation.


Morality and ethics

Theosophy does not express any formal ethical teaching, a situation that generated ambiguity. However, it has expressed and promoted certain values, such as brotherhood and social improvement. During its early years, the Theosophical Society promoted a puritanical attitude toward sexuality, for instance by encouraging
chastity Chastity, also known as purity, is a virtue related to temperance. Someone who is ''chaste'' refrains either from sexual activity considered immoral or any sexual activity, according to their state of life. In some contexts, for example when ma ...
even within marriage. By 1911, the Theosophical Society was involved in projects connected to a range of progressive political causes. In England, there were strong links between Theosophy and first-wave feminism. Based on a statistical analysis, Dixon noted that prominent English feminists of the period were several hundred times more likely to join the Theosophical Society than was the average member of the country's population. Theosophical contingents took part in feminist marches of the period; for instance, a Theosophical group operating under the banner of Universal Co-Freemasonry marched as part of the
Women's Coronation Procession The Women's Coronation Procession was a suffragette march through London, England, on 17 June 1911, just before King George V's coronation, demanding women's suffrage in the coronation year. The march was organised by the Women's Social and Polit ...
in 1911.


Ritual

The Theosophical Society did not prescribe any specific
ritual A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...
s for adherents to practice. However, ritualized practices have been established by various Theosophical groups; one such group is the Liberal Catholic Church. Another is the meetings of the United Lodge of Theosophy, which has been characterized as having a "quasi-sacred and quasi-liturgical" character.


Historical development

The Theosophical Society was largely the creation of two individuals: Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott. Established Christianity in the United States was experiencing challenges in the second half of the nineteenth century, a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization, high rates of immigration, and the growing understanding of evolutionary theory which challenged traditional Christian accounts of history. Various new religious communities were established in different parts of the country, among them the Free Religious Association,
New Thought The New Thought movement (also Higher Thought) is a spiritual movement that coalesced in the United States in the early 19th century. New Thought was seen by its adherents as succeeding "ancient thought", accumulated wisdom and philosophy from ...
,
Christian Science Christian Science is a set of beliefs and practices associated with members of the Church of Christ, Scientist. Adherents are commonly known as Christian Scientists or students of Christian Science, and the church is sometimes informally known ...
, and
Spiritualism Spiritualism is the metaphysical school of thought opposing physicalism and also is the category of all spiritual beliefs/views (in monism and dualism) from ancient to modern. In the long nineteenth century, Spiritualism (when not lowercase ...
. Theosophy would inherit the idea – then popular in the United States – that emphasized the idea of
free will Free will is the capacity of agents to choose between different possible courses of action unimpeded. Free will is closely linked to the concepts of moral responsibility, praise, culpability, sin, and other judgements which apply only to ac ...
and the inevitability of progress, including on a spiritual level. It was also influenced by a growing knowledge about Asian religions in the United States. Prior to her arrival in the United States, Blavatsky had experience with esoteric currents like Spiritualism. It was through Spiritualism that Blavatsky and Olcott met. In 1884, Olcott established the first Scottish lodge, in Edinburgh. In 1980, Campbell noted that Theosophical books were selling at record levels. In the United States, Judge had been devoting himself to the promotion of Theosophy with little success.


Post-Blavatsky

During her lifetime, Blavatsky had suggested to many different persons that they would be her successor. Three of the most prominent candidates – Olcott, Judge, and Besant – all met in London shortly after her death to discuss the situation. Judge said that he too was in contact with the Masters, and that they had provided him with a message instructing him to co-delegate the Society's Esoteric Section with Besant. Olcott, however, suspected that the notes from the Masters which Judge was producing were forged, exacerbating tensions between them. Besant attempted to act as a bridge between the two men, while Judge informed her that the Masters had revealed to him a plot that Olcott was orchestrating to kill her. In 1893, Besant came down on Olcott's side in the argument and backed the internal proceedings that Olcott raised against Judge. A two-stage enquiry took place, which concluded that because the Society took no official stance on whether the Masters existed or not, Judge could not be considered guilty of forgery and would be allowed to retain his position. The details of this trial were leaked to the journalist F. Edmund Garrett, who used them as the basis of his critical book, ''Isis Very Much Unveiled''. Judge then announced that the Masters had informed him that he should take sole control of the Esoteric Section, deposing Besant; she rejected his beliefs. Amid calls from Olcott that Judge should stand down, in April 1895 the American section voted to secede from the main Society. Judge remained its leader, but died within a year. Olcott then sent Besant to the United States to gain support for the Adyar-based{{Note that, (i
this
version, at least), part of the first paragraph of he article about" Theosophical Society Adyar" states that
The designation 'Adyar' is sometimes added to the name to make it clear that this is the Theosophical Society headquartered there, after the American section and some other lodges separated from it in 1895, under William Quan Judge ../blockquote>and later explains that he geographical place name" Adyar" refers to (it "is") he name ofblockquote>an area of
Chennai Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of th ...
, India.
Society. In this she was successful, gaining thousands of new members and establishing many new branches.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=113–114 Besant had developed a friendship with the Theosophist
Charles Webster Leadbeater Charles Webster Leadbeater (; 16 February 1854 – 1 March 1934) was a member of the Theosophical Society, Co-Freemasonry, author on occult subjects and co-initiator with J. I. Wedgwood of the Liberal Catholic Church. Originally a p ...
, and together they co-wrote a number of books.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=114–115 Leadbeater was controversial, and concerns were raised when he was found to have instructed two boys in
masturbation Masturbation is the sexual stimulation of one's own genitals for sexual arousal or other sexual pleasure, usually to the point of orgasm. The stimulation may involve hands, fingers, everyday objects, sex toys such as vibrators, or combinat ...
. The American Section of the Theosophical Society raised internal charges against him, although Besant came to his defense .{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=115–116 In a move probably designed to limit negative publicity for the Society, they accepted his resignation rather than expelling him.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=116 On Olcott's death in 1907, he had nominated Besant to be his successor, and she was then elected to the position with a large majority in June.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=117–118 In her first years as the head of the Society, Besant oversaw a dramatic growth in its membership, raising it by 50%, to 23,000.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=119 She also oversaw an expansion of the Adyar property, from 27 to 253 acres.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=119 Besant was involved in various activist causes, promoting women's rights in India through the
Women's Indian Association The Women's Indian Association (WIA) was founded at Adayar, Madras, in 1917 by Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins, Jeena Raja Dasa, and others to liberate women from the deplorable condition women suffered in socio-economic and political matters during ...
and helping to establish both the
Central Hindu College Banaras Hindu University (BHU) IAST: kāśī hindū viśvavidyālaya International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: /kaːʃiː hɪnd̪uː ʋɪʃwəʋid̪jaːləj/), is a Collegiate university, collegiate, Central university (India), central, and Re ...
and a Hindu girls' school.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=119 Besant also began a campaign for Indian Home Rule, founding a group called the Home Rule League.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=122–123 She established the ''New India'' newspaper, and after continuing to promote Indian independence in the paper's pages during the
First World War World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
she was interned for several months.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=123–124 This helped to boost her status within the independence movement, and at the age of 70 she was appointed President of the
Indian National Congress The Indian National Congress (INC), colloquially the Congress Party but often simply the Congress, is a political party in India with widespread roots. Founded in 1885, it was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British E ...
, a largely honorary position.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=124 In December 1908, Leadbeater was readmitted to the Society; this generated a wave of resignations, with the
Sydney Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mounta ...
branch seceding to form the Independent Theosophical Society. Leadbeater traveled to Adyar, where he met a young boy living there,
Jiddu Krishnamurti Jiddu Krishnamurti (; 11 May 1895 – 17 February 1986) was a philosopher, speaker and writer. In his early life, he was groomed to be the new World Teacher, an advanced spiritual position in the theosophical tradition, but later rejected th ...
, and pronounced him to be the next incarnation of a figure called the World Teacher. He subsequently took control of the boy's instruction for two years.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=119–120 With Besant, Leadbeater established a group known as the
Order of the Star in the East Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to: * Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood * Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of ...
to promote the idea of Krishnamurti as World Teacher.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=121 Leadbeater also wanted more ritual within Theosophy, and to achieve this he and J. I. Wedgwood became bishops in the Old Catholic Church.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=125–126 They then split from that to form their own Liberal Catholic Church, which was independent from the Theosophical Society (Adyar) while retaining an affiliation with it.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=126 The Church drew most of its membership from the Society and heavily relied upon its resources.{{sfn, Poller, 2018, p=88 However, in 1919 the Church was marred by police investigations into allegations that six of its priests had engaged in acts of pedophilia and Wedgewood — who was implicated in the allegations — resigned from the organization.{{sfnm, 1a1=Campbell, 1y=1980, 1p=126, 2a1=Poller, 2y=2018, 2pp=88–89 In retaliation, a "Back to Blavatsky" movement emerged within the Society. Its members pejoratively referred to Besant and her followers as practitioners of "Neo-Theosophy", objecting to the Liberal Catholic Church's allegiance to the Pope, and to the prominence that they were according to Besant and Leadbeater's publications.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=126–127 The main benefactor of the disquiet within the Back to Blavatsky movement was a rival group called the
United Lodge of Theosophists The United Lodge of Theosophists or ULT is an informal and wholly voluntary association of ''students'' of Theosophy. It was founded in 1909, mainly through the efforts of Robert Crosbie. The first ''parent lodge'' of the ULT was started in Los A ...
.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=127 One of the most prominent figures to switch allegiance was B. P. Wadia.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=143 The United Lodge of Theosophists had been established in
Los Angeles Los Angeles ( ; es, Los Ángeles, link=no , ), often referred to by its initials L.A., is the largest city in the state of California and the second most populous city in the United States after New York City, as well as one of the world ...
in 1909, when it had split from Judge's Theosophical Society in America, seeking to minimize formal organization.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=143 It focused on publishing new editions of Blavatsky and Judge's writings, as well as other books, which were usually released anonymously so as to prevent any personality cults developing within the Theosophical movement.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=143–144 The Adyar Society membership later peaked at 40,000 in the late 1920s.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=128 The Order of the Star had 30,000 members at its height.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=128 Krishnamurti himself repudiated these beliefs, insisting that he was not the World Teacher, and then resigned from the Society; the effect on the society was dramatic, as it lost a third of its membership over the coming few years.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=128, 130 Besant died in 1933, when the Society was taken over by
George Arundale George Sydney Arundale (1 December 1878 in Surrey, England — 12 August 1945 in Adyar, India) was a Theosophist, Freemason, president of the Theosophical Society Adyar and a bishop of the Liberal Catholic Church. He was the husband of th ...
, who led it until 1945; the group's activities were greatly curtailed by
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...
.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=130 Judge left no clear successor as leader of the Theosophical Society in America, but the position was taken by
Katherine Tingley Katherine Augusta Westcott Tingley (July 6, 1847 - July 11, 1929) was a social worker and prominent Theosophist. She led the American Section of the Theosophical Society after W. Q. Judge. She founded and led the Theosophical community Lomala ...
, who said that she remained in mediumistic contact with Judge's spirit.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=131, 133 Tingley launched an international campaign to promote her Theosophical group, sending delegations to Europe, Egypt, and India. In the latter country they clashed with the Adyar-based Theosophical Society, and were unsuccessful in gaining converts.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=134 Her leadership would be challenged by Ernest T. Hargrove in 1898, and when he failed he split to form his own rival group.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=135 In 1897, Tingley had established a Theosophical community,
Lomaland Lomaland was a Theosophical community located in Point Loma in San Diego, California from 1900 to 1942. Theosophical Society leader Katherine Tingley founded it in 1900 as a school, cultural center, and residential facility for her followers. ...
, at Point Loma in
San Diego San Diego ( , ; ) is a city on the Pacific Ocean coast of Southern California located immediately adjacent to the Mexico–United States border. With a 2020 population of 1,386,932, it is the eighth most populous city in the United States ...
, California.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=135–137 Various Theosophical writers and artists congregated there,{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=138 while horticultural development was also emphasized.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=138–139 In 1919, the community helped establish a Theosophical University.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=137 Longstanding financial problems coupled with an aging population resulted in the Society selling Lomaland in 1942.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=140–141 Meanwhile, Tingley's death in 1929 had resulted in the Theosophical Society in America being taken over by Gottfried de Purucker, who promoted rapprochement with other Theosophical groups in what came to be known as the Fraternisation movement.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=141–142


Demographics

During its first century, Theosophy established itself as an international movement.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=147 Campbell believed that from its foundation until 1980, Theosophy had gained tens of thousands of adherents.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=175 He noted that in that latter year, there were circa 35,000 members of the Adyar-based Theosophical Society (9000 of whom were in India), c.5,500 members of the Theosophical Society in America, c.1500 members of the Theosophical Society International (Pasadena), and about 1200 members of the United Lodge of Theosophy.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=177 Membership of the Theosophical Society reached its highest peak in 1928, when it had 45,000 members.{{sfn, Poller, 2018, p=86 The HPB Lodge in Auckland, New Zealand, was one of the world's largest, with over 500 members in 1949. Theosophical groups consist largely of individuals as opposed to family groups.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=45 Campbell noted that these members were alienated in ways from conventional social roles and practices.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=45 As noted by Dixon, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Theosophical Society "appealed above all to an elite, educated, middle- and upper-middle-class constituency".{{sfn, Dixon, 2001, p=8 It was, in her words, "a religion for the 'thinking classes'."{{sfn, Dixon, 2001, p=8 Campbell stated that Theosophy attracted "unconventional, liberal-minded Westerners",{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=94 and according to Dixon they were among those "who constituted themselves as the humanitarian conscience of the middle classes, a dissident minority who worked in a variety of parallel organizations to critique the dominant bourgeois values and culture."{{sfn, Dixon, 2001, p=10 Campbell also noted that Theosophy appealed to educated Asians, and particularly Indians, because it identified Asia as being central to a universal ancient religion and allowed Asians to retain traditional religious beliefs and practices within a modern framework.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=62


Reception and legacy

Hammer and Rothstein believed that the formation and early history of the Theosophical Society was one of the "pivotal chapters of religious history in the West."{{sfn, Hammer, Rothstein, 2013, p=1 The Theosophical Society had significant effects on religion, politics, culture, and society.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=1 In the Western world, it was a major force for the introduction of Asian religious ideas.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=1 In 1980, Campbell described it as "probably the most important non-traditional or occult group in the last century",{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=1 while in 2012 Santucci noted that it had had "a profound impact on the contemporary religious landscape".{{sfn, Santucci, 2012, p=240 In approaching Asian religion with respect and treating its religious beliefs seriously, Blavatsky and Olcott influenced South Asian society.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=165 In India, it played an important role in the Indian independence movement and in the Buddhist revival.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=1 The Indian independence leader
Mahatma Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...
developed much of his interest in Hindu culture after being given a copy of the ''
Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' ( ...
'' by two Theosophists.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=172 Alongside her support for Indian home rule, Besant had also supported home rule for Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.{{sfn, Shaw, 2018, p=36 Campbell suggested that Theosophy could be seen as a "grandfather" movement to this 20th century growth in Asian spirituality.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=vii Given the spread of such ideas in the West, some critics have perceived Theosophy's role as being largely obsolete.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=201


Influence on the arts and culture

Many important figures, in particular within the humanities and the arts, were involved in the Theosophical movement and influenced by its teachings.{{sfn, Santucci, 2012, p=240 Prominent scientists who had belonged to the Theosophical Society included the inventor
Thomas Edison Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman. He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, mass communication, sound recording, and motion pictures. These inventi ...
, the biologist
Alfred Russel Wallace Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was a British natural history, naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution thro ...
, and the chemist William Crookes.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=165 Theosophy also exerted an influence on the arts.{{sfn, Hammer, Rothstein, 2013, p=10 Theosophy was also an influence over a number of early pioneers of
abstract art Abstract art uses visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 1 ...
.{{sfnm, 1a1=Campbell, 1y=1980, 1p=169, 2a1=Hammer, 2a2=Rothstein, 2y=2013, 2p=10 Hilma af Klint's development of abstraction was directly tied to her work with the Theosophical Society, with the aim of presenting and preserving spiritual concepts visually. The Russian
expressionist Expressionism is a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Northern Europe around the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, distorting it radi ...
and pioneering abstract painter Wassily Kandinsky was also very interested in Theosophy and Theosophical ideas about colour.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=169–170 The Dutch abstract artist
Piet Mondrian Pieter Cornelis Mondriaan (), after 1906 known as Piet Mondrian (, also , ; 7 March 1872 – 1 February 1944), was a Dutch painter and art theoretician who is regarded as one of the greatest artists of the 20th century. He is known for being o ...
was also influenced by Theosophical symbolism.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=170–171 Theosophical ideas were also an influence on the Irish literary movement of the late 19th and early 20th century, with writers like Charles Johnston, George Russell, John Eglinton, Charles Weeks, and William Butler Yeats having an interest in the movement.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=165–169 The American adventure fiction writer
Talbot Mundy Talbot Mundy (born William Lancaster Gribbon, 23 April 1879 – 5 August 1940) was an English writer of adventure fiction. Based for most of his life in the United States, he also wrote under the pseudonym of Walter Galt. Best known as the ...
included Theosophical themes in many of his works.{{sfn, Taves, 1985, p=153 He had abandoned his previous allegiance to
Christian Science Christian Science is a set of beliefs and practices associated with members of the Church of Christ, Scientist. Adherents are commonly known as Christian Scientists or students of Christian Science, and the church is sometimes informally known ...
to join the Theosophical faction led by Tingley, joining the Society in 1923 and settling at the Point Loma community.{{sfn, Taves, 1985, pp=157–159 The turn-of-the-20th century Russian composer
Alexander Scriabin Alexander Nikolayevich Scriabin (; russian: Александр Николаевич Скрябин ; – ) was a Russian composer and virtuoso pianist. Before 1903, Scriabin was greatly influenced by the music of Frédéric Chopin and composed ...
, whose metaphysical and mystical views greatly influenced his tonal system and compositional output, became interested in theosophy while living in Brussels from 1909–10.


Influence on other religious and esoteric groups

{{Quote box, width=25em, align=quote=Bestsellers and television shows are devoted to Theosophical concepts such as reincarnation and spiritual evolution; the Internet overflows with references to Theosophical concepts such as the human aura (a Google search in May 2012 retrieved 47 million hits) and the ''chakras'' (12 million hits). Even truly mainstream media such as the National Geographic Channel present programs devoted to arch-Theosophical themes such as Atlantis, and the spiritual mysteries of Egypt. Terms and ideas created or mediated by spokespersons of the Theosophical Society have over time become household words, and the advent of Theosophy thus marked a fundamental change in the religious lives of countless individuals., source=— Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein, 2013{{sfn, Hammer, Rothstein, 2013, p=2 The founders of many later new religious movements had been involved in Theosophy.{{sfn, Santucci, 2012, pp=240–241 Many esoteric groups — such as Alice Bailey's Arcane School and Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy — are "directly dependent" on Theosophy.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=1 Although he had split from Theosophy when renouncing Leadbeater's statement that he was the World Teacher, Krishnamurti continued to exhibit Theosophical influences in his later teachings.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=148 In 1923 a former Theosophist, the Anglo-American Alice Bailey, established the Arcane School, which also rested on beliefs regarding contact with the Ascended Masters.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=150–153 Another former Theosophist, the Austrian Rudolf Steiner, split from the Theosophical Society over the statements about Krishnamurti and then established his own Anthroposophical Society in 1913, which promoted Anthroposophy, a philosophy influenced by Theosophical ideas.{{sfnm, 1a1=Campbell, 1y=1980, 1pp=155–158, 2a1=Poller, 2y=2018, 2p=86 Rudolf Steiner founded the Anthroposophical Society on 28 December 1912 and he was expelled from the
Theosophical Society The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, is a worldwide body with the aim to advance the ideas of Theosophy in continuation of previous Theosophists, especially the Greek and Alexandrian Neo-Platonic philosophers dating back to 3rd century CE ...
on 7 March 1913.Paull, John (2022
Rudolf Steiner: From Theosophy to Anthroposophy (1902-1913)
European Journal of Theology and Philosophy, 2 (5): 8-13 .
Despite his departure from the Theosophists, Rudolf Steiner nevertheless maintained a keen interest in Theosophy for the rest of his life.Paull, John (2018
The Library of Rudolf Steiner: The Books in English
Journal of Social and Development Sciences. 9 (3): 21–46.
As Theosophy entered the
Völkisch movement The ''Völkisch'' movement (german: Völkische Bewegung; alternative en, Folkist Movement) was a German ethno-nationalist movement active from the late 19th century through to the Nazi era, with remnants in the Federal Republic of Germany a ...
of late 19th century Austria and Germany, it syncretized to form an eclectic occult movement known as Ariosophy.{{sfn, Gardell, 2003, p=22 The most prominent Ariosophist, the Austrian Guido von List, was influenced by Theosophical ideas in creating his own occult system.{{sfn, Gardell, 2003, p=23 In the United States during the 1930s, the
I AM I Am or I'm may refer to: Language and literature * " I Am that I Am", a common English translation of the response God used in the Hebrew Bible when Moses asked for His name ** I am (biblical term), a Christian term used in the Bible * "I Am" (p ...
group was established by
Guy Ballard Guy Warren Ballard (July 28, 1878 – December 29, 1939) was an American mining engineer who, with his wife Edna Anne Wheeler Ballard, founded the "I AM" Activity. Ballard was born in Newton, Kansas and married his wife in Chicago in 1916. B ...
and Edna Ballard; the group adopted the idea of the Ascended Masters from Theosophy.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=1, 161–163 The idea of the Masters—and a belief in Morya and Kuthumi—have also been adopted into the belief system of the
Church Universal and Triumphant The Church Universal and Triumphant (CUT) is an international New Age religious organization founded in 1975 by Elizabeth Clare Prophet. It is an outgrowth (and is now the corporate parent) of The Summit Lighthouse, founded in 1958 by Prophet' ...
.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=163 The Canadian mystic
Manly P. Hall Manly Palmer Hall (18 March 1901 – 29 August 1990) was a Canadian author, lecturer, astrologer and mystic. Over his 70-year career he gave thousands of lectures and published over 150 volumes, of which the best known is ''The Secret T ...
also cited Blavatsky's writings as a key influence on his ideas.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, pp=163–165 Theosophical ideas, including on the evolution of the Earth, influenced the teachings of British conspiracist
David Icke David Vaughan Icke (; born 29 April 1952) is an English conspiracy theorist and a former footballer and sports broadcaster. He has written over 20 books, self-published since the mid-1990s, and spoken in more than 25 countries. In 1990, Ick ...
.{{sfn, Robertson, 2016, pp=25, 133–134 Hammer and Rothstein stated that Theosophy came to heavily influence "popular religiosity" and by the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries was "permeating just about every nook and cranny of contemporary "folk" religious culture" in Western countries.{{sfn, Hammer, Rothstein, 2013, p=2 It was a major influence on the
New Age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars consi ...
milieu of the latter twentieth century.{{sfnm, 1a1=Dixon, 1y=2001, 1p=4, 2a1=Hammer, 2a2=Rothstein, 2y=2013, 2p=4 It played an important role in promoting belief in reincarnation among Westerners.{{sfn, Chajes, 2017, p=68


Scholarly research

A considerable amount of literature has been produced on the subject of Theosophy and the Theosophical Society.{{sfn, Hammer, 2001, p=17 Most early publications on Theosophy fell into two camps: either apologetic and highly defensive, or highly antagonistic and aggressive towards the movement.{{sfn, Campbell, 1980, p=vii As of 2001, the scholar of religion Olav Hammer could still note that books presenting the Theosophical doctrines were mostly apologetic in nature.{{sfn, Hammer, 2001, p=18 Examples of such works include William Q. Judge's 1893 book ''Ocean of Theosophy'' and
Robert Ellwood Robert S. Ellwood (born 1933) is an American academic, author and expert on world religions. He was educated at the University of Colorado, Berkeley Divinity School and was awarded a PhD in History of Religions from the University of Chicago in ...
's 1986 book ''Theosophy''.{{sfn, Hammer, 2001, p=18 He noted that most of these works treated Theosophical doctrine as if it were a fixed entity and provided little or no discussion of how they have changed over the decades.{{sfn, Hammer, 2001, p=18 Many articles on the historical development of the movement have also appeared in the journal ''Theosophical History''.{{sfn, Hammer, 2001, p=18 Many early scholars of religion dismissed Theosophy as being not worthy of study;
Mircea Eliade Mircea Eliade (; – April 22, 1986) was a Romanian historian of religion, fiction writer, philosopher, and professor at the University of Chicago. He was a leading interpreter of religious experience, who established paradigms in religiou ...
for instance described Theosophy as a "detestable 'spiritual' hybridism".{{sfn, Hammer, Rothstein, 2013, p=3 The academic study of the Theosophical current developed at the intersection of two scholarly sub-fields: the study of new religious movements, which emerged in the 1970s, and the study of Western esotericism.{{sfn, Hammer, Rothstein, 2013, pp=3–4 For example, ''Blavatsky Unveiled Volume 1''{{sfn, Laramie, 2020} by theosophical scholar Moon Laramie provides a modern translation and dispassionate analysis of the first seven chapters of ''Isis Unveiled''. A significant proportion of the scholarship on Theosophy constitutes biographies of its leading members and discussions of events in the Society's history.{{sfn, Hammer, 2001, p=17 In contrast to the significant amount of research focused on the first two generations of Theosophists, little has been produced on later figures.{{sfn, Hammer, Rothstein, 2013, p=3 Hammer also lamented that while scholarship on Theosophy was developing, it had not focused on the reformulation of Theosophy by Leadbeater and Besant or with the developing ideas of post-Theosophical writers such as Steiner or Bailey.{{sfn, Hammer, 2001, p=19 Hammer and Rothstein suggested that the "dearth of scholarly literature" on Theosophy was because "powerful individuals and institutions" in Europe and North America regarded the religion as "ludicrous", thus discouraging scholars from devoting their time to researching it.{{sfn, Hammer, Rothstein, 2013, p=3


See also

{{columns-list, colwidth=20em, * Agni Yoga * Benjamin Creme * Hinduism and Theosophy * Neo-Theosophy * Helena Roerich * Nicholas Roerich * Victor Skumin *
Theosophy and literature According to some literary and religious studies scholars, modern Theosophy had a certain influence on contemporary literature, particularly in forms of genre fiction such as fantasy and science fiction. Researchers claim that Theosophy has signific ...
*
Theosophy and visual arts Modern Theosophy has had considerable influence on the work of visual artists, particularly painters. Artists such as Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and Luigi Russolo chose Theosophy as the main ideological and philosophical basis of their wor ...
* Theosophical Society Adyar *
Theosophical Society in America The Theosophical Society in America (TSA) is a member-based nonprofit organization dedicated to the teaching of Theosophy and affiliated with the international Theosophical Society based in Adyar, Chennai, India. The name "Theosophical Society in ...


Sources


Footnotes

{{Reflist, 20em


Bibliography

{{Refbegin, 30em, indent=yes * {{cite book , last=Campbell , first=Bruce F. , year=1980 , title=Ancient Wisdom Revived: A History of the Theosophical Movement , location=Berkeley , publisher=University of California Press , isbn= 978-0520039681 * {{cite book , last=Carlson , first=Maria , title=No Religion Higher than Truth: A History of the Theosophical Movement in Russia, 1875–1922 , url=https://archive.org/details/noreligionhigher00carl , url-access=registration , location=Princeton, NJ , publisher=Princeton University Press , year=1993 , isbn=978-0691636337 * {{cite journal , last=Chajes , first=Julie , year=2017 , title=Reincarnation in H.P. Blavatsky's ''The Secret Doctrine'' , journal=Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism , volume=5 , pages=65–93 * {{cite book , last=Dixon , first=Joy , year=2001 , title=Divine Feminine: Theosophy and Feminism in England , location=Baltimore and London , publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press , series=The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science , isbn=0-8018-6499-2 * {{cite book , last=Faivre , first=Antoine , author-link=Antoine Faivre , year=1994 , title=Access to Western Esotericism , location=Albany, NY , publisher=State University of New York Press , series=SUNY Series in Western Esoteric Traditions * {{cite book , last=Franklin , first=J. Jeffrey , title=Spirit Matters: Occult Beliefs, Alternative Religions, and the Crisis of Faith in Victorian Britain , location=Ithaca and London , publisher=Cornell University Press , year=2018 , isbn=9781501715440 * {{cite book, last=Gardell , first=Matthias , title=Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism , year=2003 , publisher=Duke University Press , location=Durham and London , isbn=978-0-8223-3071-4 * {{cite book , last=Godwin , first=Joscelyn , year=1994 , title=The Theosophical Enlightenment , location=Albany , publisher=State University of New York Press , isbn=978-0791421512 * {{cite contribution , last=Godwin , first=Joscelyn , year=1994b , contribution=Foreword , title=The Masters Revealed: Madame Blavatsky and the Myth of the Great White Lodge , editor=K. Paul Johnson , page
xv–xix
, location=Albany , publisher=State University of New York Press , isbn=978-0791420645 , url=https://archive.org/details/mastersrevealedm0000john/page/ * {{cite book , last=Goodrick-Clarke , first=Nicholas , author-link=Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke , title=Helena Blavatsky , location=Berkeley , publisher=North Atlantic Books , year=2004 , isbn=978-1-55643-457-0 , url-access=registration , url=https://archive.org/details/helenablavatsky0000blav * {{cite book , last=Goodrick-Clarke , first=Nicholas , year=2008 , title=The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction , publisher=Oxford University Press , location=Oxford , isbn=978-0195320992 * {{cite book , last=Hammer , first=Olav , year=2001 , title=Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age , location=Leiden and Boston , publisher=Brill , isbn=978-90-04-13638-0 * {{cite contribution , last1=Hammer , first1=Olav , author1-link=Olav Hammer , last2=Rothstein , first2=Mikael , author2-link=Mikael Rothstein , year=2013 , chapter=Introduction , title=Handbook of the Theosophical Current , location=Leiden , publisher=Brill , pages=1–12 , series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion , editor1=Olav Hammer , editor2=Mikael Rothstein , isbn=978-90-04-23596-0 * {{cite book , last=Hanegraaff , first=Wouter , author-link=Wouter Hanegraaff , year=2013 , title=Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed , publisher=Bloomsbury Press , location=London , isbn=978-1441136466 * {{cite contribution , last=Introvigne , first=Massimo , author-link=Massimo Introvigne , contribution=Painting the Masters in Britain: From Schmiechen to Scott , pages=206–226 , title=The Occult Imagination in Britain: 1875–1947 , editor1=Christine Ferguson , editor2=Andrew Radford , isbn=978-1-4724-8698-1 , year=2018 , location=Abingdon and New York , publisher=Routledge * {{cite book , last=Johnson , first=K. Paul , year=1994 , title=The Masters Revealed: Madame Blavatsky and the Myth of the Great White Lodge , location=Albany , publisher=State University of New York Press , isbn=978-0791420645 , url-access=registration , url=https://archive.org/details/mastersrevealedm0000john * {{cite book , author-last=Johnston , author-first=Jay , year=2012 , chapter=Theosophical Bodies: Colour, Shape, and Emotion from Modern Aesthetics to Healing Therapies , editor1-last=Cusack , editor1-first=Carol , editor2-last=Norman , editor2-first=Alex , title=Handbook of New Religions and Cultural Production , location=
Leiden Leiden (; in English and archaic Dutch also Leyden) is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. The municipality of Leiden has a population of 119,713, but the city forms one densely connected agglomeration w ...
, publisher=
Brill Publishers Brill Academic Publishers (known as E. J. Brill, Koninklijke Brill, Brill ()) is a Dutch international academic publisher founded in 1683 in Leiden, Netherlands. With offices in Leiden, Boston, Paderborn and Singapore, Brill today publishes 2 ...
, series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion , volume=4 , doi=10.1163/9789004226487_008 , pages=153–170 , isbn=978-90-04-22187-1 , issn=1874-6691 * {{cite book , last=Lachman , first=Gary , author-link=Gary Lachman , title=Madame Blavatsky: The Mother of Modern Spirituality , year=2012 , publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin , location=New York , isbn=978-1-58542-863-2 * {{cite book , last=Laramie , first=Moon , year=2020 , title=Blavatsky Unveiled: The Writings of H.P. Blavatsky in modern English. Volume I. , location=London , publisher=Martin Firrell Company Ltd , isbn= 978-0993178696 * {{cite contribution , last=Lowry , first=Elizabeth , year=2019 , contribution=These Lovers are Out of this World: Sex, Consent, and the Rhetoric of Conversion in Abductee Narratives , title=The Paranormal and Popular Culture: A Postmodern Religious Landscape , pages=68–77 , editor1=Darryl Caterine , editor2=John W. Morehead , publisher=Routledge , location=London and New York , isbn=978-1-138-73857-7 * {{cite book , last=Meade , first=Marion , author-link=Marion Meade , title=Madame Blavatsky: The Woman Behind the Myth , year=1980 , isbn=978-0-399-12376-4 , location=New York , publisher=Putnam * {{cite book , last=Partridge , first=Christopher , author-link=Christopher Partridge , year=2004 , title=The Re-Enchantment of the West Volume. 1: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture, and Occulture , publisher=T&T Clark International , location=London , isbn=978-0567084088 * {{cite contribution , last=Partridge , first=Christopher , year=2013 , chapter=Lost Horizon: H. P. Blavatsky and Theosophical Orientalism , title=Handbook of the Theosophical Current , location=Leiden , publisher=Brill , pages=309–333 , series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion , editor1=Olav Hammer , editor2=Mikael Rothstein , isbn=978-90-04-23596-0 * {{cite contribution , last=Poller , first=Jake , contribution="Under a Glamour": Annie Besant, Charles Leadbeater and Neo-Theosophy , pages=77–93 , title=The Occult Imagination in Britain: 1875–1947 , editor1=Christine Ferguson , editor2=Andrew Radford , isbn=978-1-4724-8698-1 , year=2018 , location=Abingdon and New York , publisher=Routledge * {{cite book , last=Robertson , first=David G. , title=UFOs, Conspiracy Theories and the New Age: Millennial Conspiracism , publisher=Bloomsbury Academic , location=London and New York , year=2016 , isbn=978-1-350-04498-2 * {{cite contribution , last=Santucci , first=James A. , contribution=Theosophical Society , year=2006 , title=Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism , editor1=Wouter Hanegraaff , pages=1114–1123 , location=Leiden , publisher=Brill , isbn=978-90-04-15231-1 * {{cite contribution , last=Santucci , first=James A. , contribution=Theosophy , title=The Cambridge Companion to New Religious Movements , editor1=Olav Hammer , editor2=Mikael Rothstein , year=2012 , pages=231–246 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , location=Cambridge , isbn=978-0521145657 * {{cite contribution , last=Shaw , first=Michael , contribution=Theosophy in Scotland: Oriental Occultism and National Identity , pages=23–40 , title=The Occult Imagination in Britain: 1875–1947 , editor1=Christine Ferguson , editor2=Andrew Radford , isbn=978-1-4724-8698-1 , year=2018 , location=Abingdon and New York , publisher=Routledge * {{cite journal , last=Taves , first=Brian , title=Philosophy Into Popular Fiction: Talbot Mundy and The Theosophical Society , journal=Southern California Quarterly , volume=67 , number=2 , year=1985 , pages=153–186 , doi=10.2307/41171147 , jstor=41171147 * {{cite book , author1-last=Trompf , author1-first=Garry W. , author2-last=Bernauer , author2-first=Lauren , year=2012 , chapter=Producing Lost Civilisations: Theosophical Concepts in Literature, Visual Media, and Popular Culture , editor1-last=Cusack , editor1-first=Carol , editor2-last=Norman , editor2-first=Alex , title=Handbook of New Religions and Cultural Production , location=
Leiden Leiden (; in English and archaic Dutch also Leyden) is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. The municipality of Leiden has a population of 119,713, but the city forms one densely connected agglomeration w ...
, publisher=
Brill Publishers Brill Academic Publishers (known as E. J. Brill, Koninklijke Brill, Brill ()) is a Dutch international academic publisher founded in 1683 in Leiden, Netherlands. With offices in Leiden, Boston, Paderborn and Singapore, Brill today publishes 2 ...
, series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion , volume=4 , doi=10.1163/9789004226487_006 , pages=99–131 , isbn=978-90-04-22187-1 , issn=1874-6691 * {{cite book , last=Washington , first=Peter , year=1993 , title=Madame Blavatsky's Baboon: Theosophy and the Emergence of the Western Guru , publisher=Secker & Warburg , location=London , isbn=978-0-436-56418-5 {{Refend


Further reading

{{Refbegin, 30em, indent=yes * {{cite journal , last=Bednarowski , first=Mary Farrell , title=Outside the Mainstream: Women's Religion and Women Religious Leaders in Nineteenth-Century America , journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion , volume=48 , number=2 , year=1980 , pages=207–231 , doi=10.1093/jaarel/XLVIII.2.207 , jstor=1462703 * {{cite journal , first=Michael , last=Bergunder , title=Experiments with Theosophical Truth: Gandhi, Esotericism, and Global Religious History , journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion , volume=82 , year=2014 , issue=2 , pages=398–426 , doi=10.1093/jaarel/lft095 * {{cite journal , last=Bevir , first=Mark , title=The West Turns Eastward: Madame Blavatsky and the Transformation of the Occult Tradition , journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion , volume=62 , number=3 , year=1994 , pages=747–767 , doi=10.1093/jaarel/LXII.3.747 , jstor=1465212 * {{cite journal , last=Bevir , first=Mark , title=Theosophy and the Origins of the Indian National Congress , journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies , volume=7 , number=1 , year=2003 , pages=99–115 , doi=10.1007/s11407-003-0005-4 , jstor=20106850 , s2cid=54542458 , url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/73b4862g * {{cite journal , last=Bryson , first=Mary E. , title=Metaphors for Freedom: Theosophy and the Irish Literary Revival , volume=3 , number=1 , year=1977 , journal=The Canadian Journal of Irish Studies , pages=32–40 , doi=10.2307/25512386 , jstor=25512386 * {{cite journal , last=Charjes , first=Julie , title=Metempsychosis and Reincarnation in ''Isis Unveiled'' , journal=Theosophical History , volume=16 , year=2012 , pages=128–150 * {{cite journal , last=Charjes , first=Julie , title=Blavatsky and Monotheism: Towards the Historicisation of a Critical Category , journal=Journal of Religion in Europe , volume=9 , issue=2–3 , pages=247–275 , year=2016 , doi=10.1163/18748929-00902008 * {{cite journal , last=Dixon , first=Joy , title=Sexology and the Occult: Sexuality and Subjectivity in Theosophy's New Age , journal=Journal of the History of Sexuality , volume=7 , number=3 , year=1997 , pages=409–433 , jstor=4629636 * {{cite contribution , last=Hammer , first=Olav , contribution=Schism and Consolidation: The Case of the Theosophical Movement , title=Sacred Schisms: How Religions Divide , editor= James R. Lewis , location=Cambridge , publisher=Cambridge University Press , year=2009 , pages=196–217 * {{cite book , title=New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought , last=Hanegraaff , first=Wouter , author-link=Wouter Hanegraaff , year=1996 , publisher=Brill , location=Leiden , isbn=978-9004106956 * {{cite journal , last=Hanegraaff , first=Wouter J. , year=2017 , title=The Theosophical Imagination , journal=Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism , volume=5 , pages=3–39 * {{cite journal , last=Kirkley , first=Evelyn A. , title="Equality of the Sexes, But…": Women in Point Loma Theosophy, 1899–1942 , journal=Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions , volume=1 , number=2 , year=1998 , pages=272–288 , doi=10.1525/nr.1998.1.2.272 , jstor=10.1525/nr.1998.1.2.272 * {{cite journal , last=Kraft , first=Siv Ellen , title="To Mix or Not to Mix": Syncretism/Anti-Syncretism in the History of Theosophy , journal=Numen , volume=49 , issue=2 , year=2002 , pages=142–177 , doi=10.1163/156852702760186754 , jstor=3270480 * {{cite book, last=Lavoie, first=Jeffrey D., title=The Theosophical Society: The History of a Spiritualist Movement, year=2012, isbn=9781612335537, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1VvIS8AJ0oC * {{cite contribution , last=Neufeldt , first=Ronald , contribution=In Search of Utopia: Karma and Rebirth in the Theosophical Movement , title=Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments , editor=Ronald W. Neufeldt , location=Albany , publisher=State University of New York Press , year=1986 * {{cite journal , last=Prothero , first=Stephen , title=From Spiritualism to Theosophy: "Uplifting" a Democratic Tradition , journal=Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation , volume=3 , number=2 , year=1993 , pages=197–216 , jstor=1123988 * {{cite journal , last=Prothero , first=Stephen , title=Henry Steel Olcott and "Protestant Buddhism" , journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion , volume=63 , number=2 , year=1995 , pages=281–302 , doi=10.1093/jaarel/LXIII.2.281 , jstor=1465402 * {{cite book , last=Prothero , first=Stephen , title=The White Buddhist: The Asian Odyssey of Henry Steel Olcott , location=Bloomington , publisher=Indiana University Press , year=1996 * {{cite journal , last=Santucci , first=James A. , title=The Notion of Race in Theosophy , journal=Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions , volume=11 , number=3 , year=2008 , pages=37–63 , doi=10.1525/nr.2008.11.3.37 , jstor=10.1525/nr.2008.11.3.37 * {{cite journal , last=Scott , first=J. Barton , title=Miracle Publics: Theosophy, Christianity, and the Coulomb Affair , journal=History of Religions , volume=49 , number=2 , year=2009 , pages=172–196 , doi=10.1086/649525 , jstor=10.1086/649525 , s2cid=161606445 * {{cite journal , last1=Van Wormer , first1=Stephen R. , last2=Gross , first2=G. Timothy , title=Archaeological Identification of an Idiosyncratic Lifestyle: Excavation and Analysis of the Theosophical Society Dump, San Diego, California , journal=Historical Archaeology , volume=40 , issue=1 , year=2006 , pages=100–118 , doi=10.1007/BF03376717 , jstor=25617318 , s2cid=141573487 * {{cite journal , last=Vinitsky , first=Ilya , title=Where Bobok Is Buried: The Theosophical Roots of Dostoevskii's "Fantastic Realism" , year=2006 , journal=Slavic Review , volume=65 , issue=3 , pages=523–543 , doi=10.2307/4148662 , jstor=4148662 , s2cid=163253453 {{Refend


External links

{{Wikiquote {{Wikisource, Theosophy {{Commons category, Theosophy {{Columns-list, colwidth=30em,
Blavatsky Study Center
– online Blavatsky archive
Theosophical History
– website associated with the independent,
peer-review Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competencies as the producers of the work ( peers). It functions as a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer revie ...
ed journal of the same name
Modern Theosophy
- large collection of Theosophy related articles
Theosophy Library Online
– associated with the
United Lodge of Theosophists The United Lodge of Theosophists or ULT is an informal and wholly voluntary association of ''students'' of Theosophy. It was founded in 1909, mainly through the efforts of Robert Crosbie. The first ''parent lodge'' of the ULT was started in Los A ...
, Phoenix, Arizona
Online Literature about Theosophy
– associated with the
Theosophical Society Pasadena The Theosophical Society (Pasadena) is a branch of Theosophy based in Pasadena, California. It claims to be the successor organization to the original Theosophical Society founded by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and others in 1875 in New York City. C ...

Theosophy Network library and resources
{{Theosophy series {{New Religious Movements in the United States {{Portal bar, Religion, India, Hinduism, Mythology {{Authority control Helena Blavatsky Esoteric schools of thought New religious movements Religious belief systems founded in the United States