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was a after '' Bunsei'' and before '' Kōka.'' The period spanned from December 1830 through December 1844. The reigning emperor was .


Introduction


Change of era

* December 10, 1830 () : In the 13th year of ''Bunsei'', the new era name of ''Tenpō'' (meaning "Heavenly Imperial Protection") was created to mark the disasters of a great fire in
Edo Edo ( ja, , , "bay-entrance" or "estuary"), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo. Edo, formerly a ''jōkamachi'' (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the ''de facto'' capital of ...
and an earthquake at
Kyoto Kyoto (; Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kobe. , the c ...
. The new era name was created from an hortatory aphorism: "Respect and worship the Ways of heaven. Eternally keep the
Mandate of Heaven The Mandate of Heaven () is a Chinese political philosophy that was used in ancient and imperial China to legitimize the rule of the King or Emperor of China. According to this doctrine, heaven (天, '' Tian'') – which embodies the nat ...
" (欽崇天道、永保天命). The Tenpō era is often described as the beginning of the end of
bakufu , officially , was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, though during part of the Kamakura ...
government. Though the era accomplished much through its reforms, and also culturally speaking, the injury inflicted on the Tokugawa system of government during the Tenpō period was unparalleled. Public order and dissatisfaction with government was a main issue, but the bakufu was not entirely at fault for the stir amongst the people. For example, the failure of crops in 1833, which soon became a lengthy disaster endured for over four years and was called the Great Tenpō famine. It was caused mainly by poor weather conditions. Because crops could not grow under these circumstances, prices began to skyrocket. These dire circumstances sparked many rebellions and riots across Japan over the course of the Tenpō years. Weary and desperate for someone to blame, the people rose up against the government, and
Ōshio Heihachirō was a Japanese philosopher, revolutionary, writer, and Yoriki of the in Osaka. Despite working for the government, he was openly against the Tokugawa regime. He is known for his role as leader in the rebellion against the Tokugawa shogunate. ...
, known for leading one of the largest rebellions, made a statement to implicate "the natural disasters as sure signs of Heavens's discontent with the government". Mizuno Tadakuni's reforms were meant to remedy these economic issues, but the reforms could not rescue the bakufu from its ultimate collapse. The
shogunate , officially , was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, though during part of the Kamakura ...
rule during the Tenpō era was that of Tokugawa Ieyoshi, the 12th ''shōgun of the bakufu government. His reign lasted from 1837 to 1853. During this time, many factors appeared to have seen to the decline of his health: namely, the great and devastating famine, the many rebellions rising up against the bakufu, and the swift advance of foreign influence.


Great Tenpō Famine

The Great Tenpō famine of the 1830s was a devastating period in which the whole of Japan suffered rapidly decreasing temperatures and loss of crops, and in turn, merchant prices began to spike. Many starved to death during this grim time: "The death rate for a village in the northeast rose to thirty-seven per thousand and that for the city of Takayama was nearly forty-five". As crops continued to decline in the countryside, prices increased, and a shortage of supplies left people competing to survive on meager funds.Jansen, Marius B. (1995)
The Emergence of Meiji Japan, p. 5
/ref> The rising expense of rice in particular, a staple food of the Japanese, was a firm blow to both the economy and the people, who starved because of it. Some even resorted to "eating leaves and weeds, or even straw raincoats".Jansen, Marius B. (1989)
The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 5, p. 119
/ref> The samurai also suffered the effects of the famine, dealing with lower wages from the Japanese domain governments in anticipation of fiscal shortfalls to come. To further the already dire conditions of the famine, illness eventually began to spread, and many who were starving could not resist pestilences such as smallpox, measles and influenza. Thousands died from hunger alone at the peak of the crisis in 1836–1837.


Rebellion

One of the rebellions sparked by the Great Tenpō famine was the Ōshio Heihachirō Rebellion. The man for whom it was named led an attempted revolt in the 1830s, and was granted the label of ''yonaoshi daimyojin'', or "world saviour", for his attempts at moral restoration. Formally a police officer and scholar,
Ōshio Heihachirō was a Japanese philosopher, revolutionary, writer, and Yoriki of the in Osaka. Despite working for the government, he was openly against the Tokugawa regime. He is known for his role as leader in the rebellion against the Tokugawa shogunate. ...
(1792-1837) had requested help from
Osaka is a designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the third most populous city in Japan, following Special wards of Tokyo and Yokohama. With a population of ...
city commissioners and otherwise wealthy merchants in 1837, only to be met with indifference. Shocked by his lack of success in the endeavour, Ōshio instigated an uprising to oppose those who had refused their aid. With approximately 300 followers, including poor townsfolk and peasants from various villages, Ōshio set fire to one-fifth of Osaka city. But the rebellion was suppressed in short order, forcing Ōshio to a quick end in which he committed suicide. The scholar Ikuta Yorozo (1801–1837) also instigated a rebellion from similar roots as that of Ōshio Heihachirō. Ikuta had opened a school for the education of adolescents, consisting mostly of peasants. Having also suffered from the Great Tenpō Famine, Ikuta despaired the lack of aid local bureaucrats were willing to provide, and in 1837, he assembled a band of peasants in retaliation. Together they launched an attack on the bureaucrats, which met with devastating results and ended with Ikuta taking his own life.


Ogata Kōan and Tekijuku

In 1838, a year following
Ōshio Heihachirō was a Japanese philosopher, revolutionary, writer, and Yoriki of the in Osaka. Despite working for the government, he was openly against the Tokugawa regime. He is known for his role as leader in the rebellion against the Tokugawa shogunate. ...
's rebellion, and after the fire that had scorched nearly a quarter of Osaka city, the physician Ogata Kōan founded an academy to teach medicine, healing and
Rangaku ''Rangaku'' (Kyūjitai: /Shinjitai: , literally "Dutch learning", and by extension "Western learning") is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of West ...
, or Dutch Studies. The school was called Tekijuku, where distinction of status was unknown and competition abounded. Ogata encouraged this competitive learning, especially of the Dutch language to which he had dedicated much of his own study. However, the competition escalated and eventually students bent to the rigorous pressure of the academy, acting recklessly to vent frustrations. For example: "slashing their swords against the central pillar of the main boarding hall, leaving gashes and nicks".McClain, James L. and Osamu, Wakita. (1999)
Osaka: The Merchants' Capital of Early Modern Japan, p. 227-228
/ref> Ogata did not deem it necessary to take disciplinary measures, thinking it harmless and recreational. Much of Ogata's life was devoted to
Rangaku ''Rangaku'' (Kyūjitai: /Shinjitai: , literally "Dutch learning", and by extension "Western learning") is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of West ...
, which was clearly displayed in the vision he had for Tekijuku. Ogata is known in history for his attentions to the medical, or internal therapeutic aspects of Rangaku, including emphasis on diseases and his aid in translation of foreign medical terms.


Restriction of Foreign Influence


Morrison Incident

In 1837, upon rescuing several stranded Japanese sailors, an American merchant ship called the ''Morrison'' endeavoured to return them to their homeland, hoping this venture would earn them the right to trade with Japan. However, the merchant ship was fired upon as it entered Japanese seas due to the Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels passed by Japan in 1825. This was later referred to as the Morrison incident. However, there were some in Japan who criticized the government's actions, namely the ''Bangaku Shachu'' a band of ''
rangaku ''Rangaku'' (Kyūjitai: /Shinjitai: , literally "Dutch learning", and by extension "Western learning") is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of West ...
'' scholars who advocated a more open approach to the outside, perhaps to the extent of ending Japan's long-standing ''
sakoku was the isolationist foreign policy of the Japanese Tokugawa shogunate under which, for a period of 265 years during the Edo period (from 1603 to 1868), relations and trade between Japan and other countries were severely limited, and nearly a ...
'' policy. This stance against the shogunate riled the government into the ''
Bansha no goku The Bansha no goku (蛮社の獄, literally "Indictment of the society for western (or barbarian) study") refers to the 1839 suppression of scholars of Western Studies ( rangaku) by the Edo Shogunate government of Japan. The incident was provok ...
'', arresting twenty-six members of the Bangaku Shachu, and reinforcing the policies on foreign education by limiting the publication of books, in addition to making access to materials for Dutch Studies increasingly difficult.


Tenpō Reforms

As the Tokugawa era drew to a close, a major reform was exerted called the Tenpō Reforms (1841–1843), primarily instituted by Mizuno Tadakuni, a dominant leader in the shogunate. The reforms were economic policies introduced prominently to resolve fiscal issues mainly caused by the Great Tenpō famine, and to revisit more traditional aspects of the Japanese economy. For the samurai, these reforms were meant to spur them to return to their roots of education and military arts. The samurai aimed for change within the status quo itself. There was a stringency amongst all classes of people, and at this time, travel was regulated (especially for farmers, who were meant to remain at home and work their fields) and trade relations crumbled. This, in turn, caused various goods to lower in price. Under Mizuno's leadership, the reforms brought about the following: "Moral reform, the encouragement of frugality and retrenchment, recoinage, forced loans from wealthy merchant houses, and the cancellation of samurai debts".Hauser, William B. (1974)
Economic Institutional Change in Tokugawa Japan: Osaka and the Kinai Cotton Trade, p. 54
/ref> In addition, the
bakufu , officially , was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, though during part of the Kamakura ...
met with fierce objection when land transfers were impressed upon the ''
daimyō were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and nominall ...
s'' in an attempt to reinforce the reach of influence and authority that remained of the Tokugawa government. Though the reforms largely ended in failure, the introduction of economical change during this period is seen as the initial approach leading ultimately to the modernization of Japan's economy.


Fires at Edo Castle

Edo Castle was devastated by two fires during the Tenpō era, in 1839 and 1843 respectively, and despite rampant rebellion during this period, neither fire was due to unrest.


Other Events of the ''Tenpō'' era

* 1834 (''Tenpō 5''): Kondō Isami born in Tama. * July 20, 1835 (''Tenpō 6, 7th day of the 6th month''): Earthquake in Sanriku (Latitude: 37.900/Longitude: 141.900), 7.6 magnitude on the
Richter Scale The Richter scale —also called the Richter magnitude scale, Richter's magnitude scale, and the Gutenberg–Richter scale—is a measure of the strength of earthquakes, developed by Charles Francis Richter and presented in his landmark 1935 ...
."Significant Earthquake Database"
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC)
**
Hijikata Toshizō was a Japanese warrior. As of the ''Shinsengumi'', he resisted the Meiji Restoration and fought to his end. Background was born on May 31, 1835, in the Ishida village, Tama region of Musashi Province (present day Ishida, Hino, Tokyo), Ja ...
born, May 5. * 1836 (''Tenpō 7''): Matsudaira Katamori born in
Edo Edo ( ja, , , "bay-entrance" or "estuary"), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo. Edo, formerly a ''jōkamachi'' (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the ''de facto'' capital of ...
. * 1837 (''Tenpō 7''): Tokugawa Ieyoshi becomes the 12th ''
shōgun , officially , was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, though during part of the Kamaku ...
'' of the
bakufu , officially , was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, though during part of the Kamakura ...
government.Hall, John Whitney ''et al.'' (1991)
''Early Modern Japan'', p. 21.
/ref> * 1837 (''Tenpō 8''):
Tokugawa Yoshinobu Prince was the 15th and last ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan. He was part of a movement which aimed to reform the aging shogunate, but was ultimately unsuccessful. He resigned of his position as shogun in late 1867, while aiming ...
born. * April 25, 1843 (''Tenpō 14, 25th day of the 3rd month''): Earthquake in Yezo, Kushiro, Nemuro (Latitude: 41.800/Longitude: 144.800), 8.4 magnitude on the Richter Scale. * 1844 (''Tenpō 15''): Insurrection in Chōshū; also, Saitō Hajime born in Edo.


Calendar revision

During the Tenpō era, Koide Shuke translated portions of Jérôme Lalande's work on astronomy. Koide presented this work to the Astronomy Board as evidence of the superiority of the European calendar, but the effort produced no identifiable effect. However, Koide's work and translations of other Western writers did indirectly affect the ''Tenpō'' calendar revision in 1842–1844. A great many errors had been found in the lunar calendar; and a revised system was publicly adopted in 1844. The new calendar was called the ''Tenpō-Jinin'' calendar. It was in use in Japan until 1872 when the Gregorian calendar was adopted.Hayashi, Tsuruichi. (1907). "A Brief history of the Japanese Mathematics",


Gallery

File:Tenpo period edasen.jpg, Branched ("Edasen" 枝銭)
Mon Mon, MON or Mon. may refer to: Places * Mon State, a subdivision of Myanmar * Mon, India, a town in Nagaland * Mon district, Nagaland * Mon, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India * Mon, Switzerland, a village in the Canton of Grisons * A ...
coins of the Tenpō period. Image:MorrisonShip.jpg, Japanese drawing of the ''Morrison'', anchored in front of Uraga in 1837.


See also

* Tenpō calendar * Tenpō Reforms


Notes


References

* Hall, John Whitney and Marius Jansen. (1991)
''Early Modern Japan: The Cambridge History of Japan.''
Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer. Cambridge University Pr ...
.
OCLC 62064695
* Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). ''Japan Encyclopedia.'' Cambridge:
Harvard University Press Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. After the retir ...
.
OCLC 48943301
* Smith, David E. and Yoshio Mikami. (1914)
''A History of Japanese Mathematics.''
Chicago: Open Court Publishing
OCLC 1515528– note alternate online, full-text copy at archive.org
* ''Wiskundig Genootschap'' (Mathematical Society). (1907)
''Nieuw archief voor wiskunde''
(New Archive of Mathematics''). Amsterdam, Swets & Zeitlinger
OCLC 5814818
* Jansen, Marius B. (2000)
''The Making of Modern Japan.''
Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. After the retir ...
. * Hall, John Whitney. (1991)
''The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 4.''
Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer. Cambridge University Pr ...
. * Jansen, Marius B. (1995)
''The Emergence of Meiji Japan.''
Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer. Cambridge University Pr ...
. * Jansen, Marius B. (1989)
''The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 5.''
Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer. Cambridge University Pr ...
. * Totman, Conrad D. (1993)
''Early Modern Japan.''
Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press The University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. It was founded in 1893 to publish scholarly and scientific works by facul ...
. * Hane, Mikiso and Perez, Louis G. (2009)
''Modern Japan: A Historical Survey.''
Boulder, CO:
Westview Press Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in England that publishes books and academic journals. Its parts include Taylor & Francis, Routledge, F1000 Research or Dovepress. It is a division of Informa plc, a United Ki ...
. * Frédéric, Louis. (2002)
''Japan Encyclopedia.''
Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. After the retir ...
. * Lu, David J. (1997)
''Japan: A Documentary History.''
Armonk, NY: East Gate Book. * Hauser, William B. (1974)
''Economic Institutional Change in Tokugawa Japan: Osaka and the Kinai Cotton Trade.''
New York:
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer. Cambridge University Pr ...
. * Shavit, David. (1990)
''The United States in Asia: A Historical Dictionary.''
Westport, CT:
Greenwood Publishing Group Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. (GPG), also known as ABC-Clio/Greenwood (stylized ABC-CLIO/Greenwood), is an educational and academic publisher ( middle school through university level) which is today part of ABC-Clio. Established in 1967 as G ...
. * Cullen, L. M. (2003)
''A History of Japan, 1582-1941: Internal and External Worlds.''
Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer. Cambridge University Pr ...
. * Cunningham, Mark E. and Zwier, Lawrence J. (2009)
''The End of the Shoguns and the Birth of Modern Japan.''
Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books. * McClain, James L. and Osamu, Wakita. (1999)
''Osaka: The Merchants' Capital of Early Modern Japan.''
New York:
Cornell University Press The Cornell University Press is the university press of Cornell University; currently housed in Sage House, the former residence of Henry William Sage. It was first established in 1869, making it the first university publishing enterprise in ...
. * Jannetta, Ann Bowman. (2007)
''The Vaccinators: Smallpox, Medical Knowledge, and the "Opening" of Japan.''
Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press Stanford University Press (SUP) is the publishing house of Stanford University. It is one of the oldest academic presses in the United States and the first university press to be established on the West Coast. It was among the presses officially ...
.


External links


"The Japanese Calendar"
National Diet Library—historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection {{DEFAULTSORT:Tenpo Japanese eras 1830s in Japan 1840s in Japan