HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Imperial titles were used in various historical Korean states before the 14th century and at the turn of the 20th century: Early Korean states used "great king", "greatest king", and "holy king"; later Korean states used "
emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother (emp ...
". Korean monarchs who used imperial titles had political and religious authority over a realm or domain. The Chinese concept of '' tianxia'', pronounced "''cheonha''" in Korean, was variously adopted and adapted to Korean views of the world from period to period.


Three Kingdoms of Korea

The 5th century was a period of great interaction on the Korean Peninsula that marked the first step toward the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The earliest known '' tianxia'' view of the world in Korean history is recorded in Goguryeo epigraphs dating to this period. Dongmyeong of Goguryeo was a god-king, the Son of Heaven, and his kingdom was the center of the world. As the descendants of the Son of Heaven, the kings of Goguryeo were the Scions of Heaven (), who had supreme authority and sacerdotally intermediated between Heaven and Earth. The Goguryeo concept of ''tianxia'' was significantly influenced by the original Chinese concept, but its foundation laid in Dongmyeong. In contrast to the Chinese ''tianxia'', which was based on the Mandate of Heaven, the Goguryeo ''tianxia'' was based on divine ancestry. As Goguryeo became centralized, Dongmyeong became the state god of Goguryeo. His worship was widespread among the people, and the view that Goguryeo was the center of the world was not limited to the royal family and aristocracy. Dongmyeong was worshiped well into the
Goryeo Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificati ...
period of Korea;
Yi Gyubo Yi or YI may refer to: Philosophic Principle * Yì (义; 義, righteousness, justice) among the 三綱五常 Ethnic groups * Dongyi, the Eastern Yi, or Tung-yi (Chinese: , ''Yí''), ancient peoples who lived east of the Zhongguo in ancient Ch ...
said "Even unlettered country folk can tell the tale of King ongmyeong" Goguryeo was an authority unto itself. It had an independent sphere of influence in Northeast Asia for more than 200 years around the 5th and 6th centuries. Goguryeo viewed itself as the Land of the Scion of Heaven and viewed its neighboring states of
Baekje Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jumon ...
, Silla, and
Eastern Buyeo Eastern Buyeo, also rendered as Dongbuyeo or Eastern Fuyu, was an ancient kingdom that developed from Northern Buyeo (Northern Fuyu), until it was conquered by Goguryeo. According to the ''Samguk Sagi'', it was established when the Buyeo king ...
as tributary states. Together, they constituted a Goguryeo ''tianxia''. A strong sense of commonality emerged, later culminating in a "'' Samhan''" consciousness among the peoples of the Three Kingdoms. The Three Kingdoms of Korea were collectively called the ''Samhan'' in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Earlier, Goguryeo was called ''Samhan'' in the ''
Book of Wei The ''Book of Wei'', also known by its Chinese name as the ''Wei Shu'', is a classic Chinese historical text compiled by Wei Shou from 551 to 554, and is an important text describing the history of the Northern Wei and Eastern Wei from 386 to 5 ...
''. The unification of the ''Samhan'' was later proclaimed by Silla in the 7th century and Goryeo in the 10th century. Goguryeo monarchs were called kings, not emperors. Goguryeo kings were sometimes elevated to "great kings", "holy kings", or "greatest kings". They were equivalent to emperors and '' khagans''. The Goguryeo title of "greatest king", or ''taewang'' (), was similar to the Chinese title of "
heavenly king Heavenly King or Tian Wang () is a Chinese title for various religious deities and divine leaders throughout history, as well as an alternate form of the term ''Son of Heaven'', referring to the emperor. The Chinese term for Heavenly King consist ...
". "King" was first used in Goguryeo around the beginning of the Common Era; it was first used in Northeast Asia in the 4th century BCE in
Old Joseon Gojoseon () also called Joseon (), was the first kingdom on the Korean Peninsula. According to Korean mythology, the kingdom was established by the legendary founder named Dangun. Gojoseon possessed the most advanced culture in the Korean Pen ...
, before "emperor", or '' huangdi'', was first used in China. The indigenous titles of ''ga'', ''gan'', and ''han'', which were similar to ''
khan Khan may refer to: *Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan *Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name *Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
'', were downgraded and the sinified title of king, or ''wang'', became the supreme title in Northeast Asia. Goguryeo monarchs being called kings was not in deference to China; ''wang'' was not inferior to ''huangdi'' or ''khan'' in Goguryeo tradition. Goguryeo had a pluralistic concept of ''tianxia''. The Goguryeo ''tianxia'' was one among others that constituted the world. During the 5th and 6th centuries, a balance of power was maintained in East Asia between the Northern and Southern dynasties, the
Rouran Khaganate The Rouran Khaganate, also Juan-Juan Khaganate (), was a tribal confederation and later state founded by a people of Proto-Mongolic Donghu origin.*Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000)"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organizat ...
, Goguryeo, and, later, Tuyuhun. Goguryeo maintained tributary relations with the Northern and Southern dynasties; the relationships were voluntary and profitable. A policy of coexistence was pursued and relations were peaceful. Goguryeo's tributary relations with the Northern and Southern dynasties were nominal. The Northern and Southern dynasties had no control over Goguryeo's foreign policy; Goguryeo pursued policies that went against Chinese interests. Goguryeo restrained Northern Wei, the strongest power in East Asia at the time, by allying with its enemies. Northern Wei said that Goguryeo was "worthy" and gave preferential treatment to its envoys.
Southern Qi Qi, known in historiography as the Southern Qi ( or ) or Xiao Qi (), was a Chinese imperial dynasty and the second of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties era. It followed the Liu Song dynasty and was succeede ...
said that Goguryeo was "so strong that it ould notfollow orders". Goguryeo maintained cordial relations with the Rouran, and together attacked the Didouyu. The Goguryeo ''tianxia'' was distinct from those of China and Inner Asia. During the 5th and 6th centuries, China and Goguryeo recognized each other's spheres of influence. China did not directly intervene in Goguryeo's ''tianxia'' of Northeast Asia, and vice versa. Goguryeo did not have westward ambitions, and instead moved its capital to Pyongyang in the 5th century. Within its sphere of influence, Goguryeo partially subjugated the Khitan, Mohe, and Didouyu, and influenced Buyeo, Silla, and Baekje. Peace was maintained with China for more than 150 years; it ended with the unification of China by the Sui dynasty. The unification of China changed the international balance of power. With its supremacy in Northeast Asia threatened, Goguryeo warred with a unified China for 70 years until its defeat in 668 by the Tang dynasty and Silla. Silla's systems were based on those of Goguryeo. "Great king" was first used in Silla in the early 6th century as Silla expanded. Previously, ''maripgan'', or "highest ''khan''", was used; during its ''maripgan'' period (356–514), Silla was unified but not centralized. While the Goguryeo royalty and aristocracy were associated with the Son of Heaven, the Silla royalty and aristocracy were associated with
the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
. Silla monarchs were viewed as the Buddha and Silla was viewed as a Buddha land from the early 6th century to the mid-7th century. Silla used its own era names during this period. Silla began building an imperial Buddhist temple called the Temple of the Imperial Dragon in the mid-6th century. "Great king" was last used in Silla by
Muyeol of Silla King Taejong Muyeol (604–661), born Gim Chunchu, was the 29th ruler of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He is credited for leading the unification of Korea's Three Kingdoms. Background King Taejong Muyeol was born with the "sacred ...
; afterward, Silla accommodated itself to the ''tianxia'' of the Tang dynasty.


Goryeo

Taejo of Goryeo founded Goryeo in 918 as a successor to Goguryeo. He adopted the era name of "Bestowed by Heaven". Taejo was acknowledged as the successor to Dongmyeong in China. Goryeo was acknowledged as the successor to Goguryeo in China and Japan. Taejo unified Korea and proclaimed the unification of the "''Samhan''", or the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goryeo viewed its Three Kingdoms heritage as nearly on a par with the imperial heritage of China. The conceptual world of the ''Samhan'' or the "Three Han"—Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje—constituted a Goryeo ''tianxia''. Within the Goryeo ''tianxia'', called ''Haedong'' or "East of the Sea", Goryeo monarchs were emperors and Sons of Heaven. Goryeo monarchs were called emperors and Sons of Heaven. Imperial titles were used since the beginning of the dynasty; Taejo was called "Son of Heaven" by the last king of Silla. Goryeo monarchs addressed imperial edicts and were addressed as "Your Imperial Majesty" (). They were posthumously bestowed with imperial
temple names Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynas ...
. The use of imperial language was widespread and ubiquitous in Goryeo. Imperial titles and practices extended to members of the royal family. Members of the royal family were commonly invested as kings. Goryeo monarchs wore imperial yellow clothing. Goryeo's imperial system was modeled after that of the Tang dynasty. The government consisted of
three departments and six ministries The Three Departments and Six Ministries () system was the primary administrative structure in imperial China from the Sui dynasty (581–618) to the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). It was also used by Balhae (698–926) and Goryeo (918–1392) a ...
and the military consisted of five armies. Kaesong was an imperial capital and the main palace was an imperial palace; Pyongyang and Seoul were secondary capitals. Goryeo maintained a tributary system. The Jurchens who later founded the Jin dynasty viewed Goryeo as a parent country and Goryeo monarchs as suzerains. Goryeo monarchs were initially called "Emperor of Goryeo" by the Jin dynasty. The Song dynasty, the Liao dynasty, and the Jin dynasty were well aware of and tolerated Goryeo's imperial claims and practices. Goryeo had a pluralistic concept of ''tianxia''. The Goryeo ''tianxia'' was one among others that constituted the world. During the 11th and part of the 12th centuries, a balance of power was maintained in East Asia between Goryeo, the Liao dynasty, the Song dynasty, and Western Xia. Goryeo played an active role in East Asian politics. Goryeo monarchs were called kings vis-à-vis China; Goryeo successively maintained tributary relations with the
Five Dynasties The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen conc ...
(beginning with the
Later Tang dynasty Tang, known in historiography as the Later Tang, was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China and the second of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in Chinese history. The first three of the Later Tang's four e ...
), the Song dynasty, the Liao dynasty, and the Jin dynasty. However, Goryeo's tributary relations with them were nominal. Goryeo had no political, economic, or military obligations to China. According to Peter Yun: "While Goryeo may have admired and adopted many of China's culture and institutions, there is little evidence that it accepted the notion of Chinese political superiority as the natural order of things." Goryeo monarchs possessed full ''de jure'' sovereignty. During the 11th and 12th centuries, Goryeo was assertive toward China. Goryeo treated imperial envoys from the Song, Liao, and Jin dynasties as equals, not superiors; imperial envoys were consistently downgraded. Goryeo used both a royal and an imperial system during its early and middle periods. Goryeo monarchs were not strictly emperors at home and kings abroad: Goryeo's royal system was also used at home, and its imperial system was also used abroad. They were used almost indiscriminately. Goryeo's identity was not defined by its monarchs being kings or emperors but, instead, by them being Sons of Heaven. According to Remco E. Breuker: "The oryeoruler has been king, he has been emperor, and at times he was both. His correct appellation is not important, however, compared to the fact that he was considered to rule his own domain 'tianxia'' his own, not just politically and practically, but also ideologically and ontologically." Goryeo was an independent ''tianxia''; within it, Goryeo monarchs were Sons of Heaven, called "Son of Heaven of East of the Sea" (), who were viewed as superhuman beings who alone mediated between Heaven and the Korean people. The Goryeo worldview partly originated during earlier periods of Korean history. It was possibly a continuation of the Goguryeo worldview. New elements were introduced during the Goryeo period. The Goryeo worldview was more influenced than was the Goguryeo worldview by Confucianism. Confucianism was the main political ideology during the Goryeo period, but not during the Three Kingdoms period. According to Edward Y. J. Chung: " onfucianismplayed a subordinate role to the traditional ideas and institutions maintained by noble families and hereditary aristocrats, as well as by the Buddhist tradition." The Goryeo worldview was possibly influenced by Dongmyeong worship and
Balhae Balhae ( ko, 발해, zh, c=渤海, p=Bóhǎi, russian: Бохай, translit=Bokhay, ), also rendered as Bohai, was a multi-ethnic kingdom whose land extends to what is today Northeast China, the Korean Peninsula and the Russian Far East. It wa ...
refugees: Dongmyeong was highly venerated and widely worshiped in Goryeo. He was the only one among the progenitors of the Three Kingdoms of Korea who was honored with shrines; his tomb and shrine in Pyongyang were called the Real Pearl Tomb and the Shrine of Holy Emperor Dongmyeong. Balhae used imperial titles and era names. Taejo viewed Balhae as a kin country and accepted many refugees from it; Balhae refugees constituted 10 percent of the Goryeo population. Goryeo entered a period of military dictatorship similar to a
shogunate , officially , was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, though during part of the Kamakur ...
in the late 12th century. During this period of ''de facto'' military rule, Goryeo monarchs continued to be viewed as Sons of Heaven and emperors, and Goryeo continued to be viewed as a ''tianxia''. The view of Goryeo as a ''tianxia'' inspired a spirit of resistance to the Mongols in the 13th century. Goryeo capitulated to the Mongols after 30 years of war and later became a semiautonomous " son-in-law state" () to the Yuan dynasty in 1270. Goryeo's imperial system ended with
Wonjong of Goryeo Wonjong of Goryeo (5 April 1219 – 23 July 1274) was the 24th ruler of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea from 1260 to 1274. Biography He ascended the throne with the help of Kublai Khan. During his reign, Goryeo became a vassal of the Mongol-founde ...
. During this period of Mongol dominance, Goryeo monarchs were demoted to kings and temple names indicated loyalty to the Yuan dynasty. The '' Songs of Emperors and Kings'' and ''
Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms ''Samguk yusa'' () or ''Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms'' is a collection of legends, folktales and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea (Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla), as well as to other periods and states before, duri ...
'' maintained the view of Goryeo as a ''tianxia''. However, the view of Goryeo as a ''tianxia'' gradually declined. Goryeo ended its son-in-law status in 1356:
Gongmin of Goryeo Gongmin of Goryeo (23 May 1330 – 27 October 1374), also known by his Mongolian name, Bayan Temür., was 31st ruler of Goryeo from 1351 to 1374. He was the second son of King Chungsuk. Biography Early life Goryeo had been a semi-autonomou ...
recovered
Ssangseong The Ssangseong Prefectures were administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty established in 1258 in modern-day Kumya County, South Hamgyong Province, North Korea. It was founded as a base for conquest and domination of northern Goryeo territory t ...
and declared autonomy. Meanwhile, Neo-Confucianism emerged as the dominant ideology; Confucianism profoundly influenced Korean thought, religion, socio-political systems, and ways of life for the first time in Korean history. The powerful influence of Neo-Confucianism in the twilight of the Goryeo dynasty led to a growing
Sinocentric Sinocentrism refers to the worldview that China is the cultural, political, or economic center of the world. It may be considered analogous to Eurocentrism. Overview and context Depending on the historical context, Sinocentrism can refer to ...
view of Korea as a "little China".


Joseon

The Goryeo dynasty transitioned into the Joseon dynasty in 1392. The architects of the Joseon dynasty were anti-Buddhist Neo-Confucian
scholar-official The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class. Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...
s. They transformed Korea from a Buddhist country into a Confucian country. Joseon was a thoroughly Confucian country; it was the self-proclaimed most and later only Confucian country in the world. The view of Korea as a unification of the "Three Han"—Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje—continued in the Joseon dynasty. Sejong the Great built shrines for the progenitors of the Three Kingdoms of Korea; he said that the Three Kingdoms were equal and rejected a proposal to worship only the progenitor of Silla. The view of Korea as a ''tianxia'' or ''a'' center of the world ended in the Joseon dynasty. Joseon monarchs were kings, not emperors; Joseon viewed China as the only center of the world. The Neo-Confucian Joseon dynasty was greatly influenced by a Confucian concept called ''
sadae ''Sadae'' (''lit.'' "serving-the-Great," Hangul: 사대 Hanja: ) is a Korean term which is used in pre-modern contexts.Armstrong, Charles K. (2007). ''Sadae'' is a Confucian concept, based on filial piety, that describes a reciprocal hierarchica ...
'', or "serving the great". Joseon maintained a policy of tributary ''sadae'' toward China, and China maintained a policy of benign neglect toward Joseon. As a successor state, the Joseon dynasty was obligated to compile an official history of its predecessor state. The preceding Goryeo dynasty, however, had been a qualitatively different society and had held a qualitatively different position vis-à-vis China. Goryeo had maintained an imperial system that ran counter to ''sadae''; it had maintained only a nominal ''sadae'' toward China. Joseon Neo-Confucian ideologues loyal to ''sadae'' compiled a distorted history of Goryeo that suppressed the fact that it had maintained an imperial system. Sejong adamantly opposed them and advocated historical accuracy. Despite its Neo-Confucian orthodoxy, the Joseon dynasty inherited some imperial traditions from the Goryeo dynasty. According to Remco E. Breuker, this can be attributed to "the total weight of the cultural and historical power accumulated during centuries of use". The Joseon dynasty was autonomous in its internal and external affairs. It was not a colony or dependency of China. However, China abandoned its conventional laissez-faire policy of noninterference toward Korea and adopted a radical interventionist policy of interference in the late 19th century. According to Ming-te Lin: "This was indeed the most aggressive and visible behavior of China's intervention in Korean politics since the Yuan dynasty (Ming China assisted Korea once, but did not interfere with her politics), and it was the turning point in
ing Ing, ING or ing may refer to: Art and media * '' ...ing'', a 2003 Korean film * i.n.g, a Taiwanese girl group * The Ing, a race of dark creatures in the 2004 video game '' Metroid Prime 2: Echoes'' * "Ing", the first song on The Roches' 1992 ...
China's policy toward Korea." The late 19th century was a turbulent period in Korean history: Korea experienced interventions by not only China but also Japan and the West. Japan brought Korea into its sphere of influence with a victory over China in 1895. Korea turned to Russia to counterbalance Japan. A new Korean reformist group called the Independence Club emerged and called for the establishment of a new imperial government that could claim equality with the empires of China, Japan, and Russia and safeguard the independence of Korea. King Gojong declared Korea an empire and himself an emperor in 1897. However, the new Korean Empire was an empire in name only. The Korean Empire was reduced to a protectorate in 1905 after Japan defeated Russia and a colony in 1910 after Japan annexed Korea. The Korean Empire, or the "Great Han Empire", was named after the Three Han. Gojong said that the Goryeo dynasty unified the ''Samhan'' and the Joseon dynasty expanded the land to 4,000 ''li''. The Republic of Korea (South Korea), or the "Great Han Republic", is named after the Korean Empire.


See also

* Korean nobility * List of monarchs of Korea


Notes


References


Citations


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{citation , last1=Yun , first1=Peter , title=Balance of Power in the 11th~12th Century East Asian Interstate Relations , journal=Journal of Political Criticism , date=2011 , volume=9 , pages=139–162 , url=http://www.kapc.re.kr/product/item.php?it_id=1511398872&ca_id=10&page=1&sort1=&sort2=&check=1 , publisher=The Korean Association for Political Criticism History of Korea