The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards is a

Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English p ...

religious text containing statements by leaders of the English medieval movement, the

Lollards Lollardy, also known as Lollardism or the Lollard movement, was a proto-Protestant Christian religious movement that existed from the mid-14th century until the 16th-century English Reformation. It was initially led by John Wycliffe, a Catholic ...

, inspired by teachings of

John Wycliffe John Wycliffe (; also spelled Wyclif, Wickliffe, and other variants; 1328 – 31 December 1384) was an English scholastic philosopher, theologian, biblical translator, reformer, Catholic priest, and a seminary professor at the University of O ...

. The Conclusions were written in 1395. The text was presented to the

Parliament of England The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England from the 13th century until 1707 when it was replaced by the Parliament of Great Britain. Parliament evolved from the great council of bishops and peers that advised t ...

and nailed to the doors of

Westminster Abbey Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, is an historic, mainly Gothic church in the City of Westminster, London, England, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is one of the United ...

and

St Paul's Cathedral St Paul's Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in London and is the seat of the Bishop of London. The cathedral serves as the mother church of the Diocese of London. It is on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London and is a Grad ...

as a placard (a typical medieval method for publishing). The manifesto suggests the expanded treatise '' Thirty-Seven Conclusions'' (''Thirty-seven Articles against Corruptions in the Church'') for those that wished more in-depth information.

Twelve conclusions

The text summarizes twelve areas in which the Lollards argued that the Christian Church in England needed reform.

First conclusion: state of the Church

The first conclusion asserts that the English Church has become too involved in affairs of temporal power, led by the bad example of the Church of Rome.

Second conclusion: the priesthood

The second conclusion asserts that the ceremonies used for the

ordination Ordination is the process by which individuals are Consecration, consecrated, that is, set apart and elevated from the laity class to the clergy, who are thus then authorization, authorized (usually by the religious denomination, denominational ...

of priests and bishops are without scriptural basis or precedent.

Third conclusion: clerical celibacy

The third conclusion asserts that the practice of

clerical celibacy Clerical celibacy is the requirement in certain religions that some or all members of the clergy be unmarried. Clerical celibacy also requires abstention from deliberately indulging in sexual thoughts and behavior outside of marriage, because the ...

has encouraged

sodomy Sodomy () or buggery (British English) is generally anal or oral sex between people, or sexual activity between a person and a non-human animal ( bestiality), but it may also mean any non- procreative sexual activity. Originally, the term ''sodo ...

among the clergy.

Fourth conclusion: transubstantiation

The fourth conclusion asserts that the doctrine of

transubstantiation Transubstantiation (Latin: ''transubstantiatio''; Greek: μετουσίωσις ''metousiosis'') is, according to the teaching of the Catholic Church, "the change of the whole substance of bread into the substance of the Body of Christ and of th ...

leads to idolatrous worship of everyday objects (the communion wafers).

Fifth conclusion: exorcisms and hallowings

The fifth conclusion asserts that the

exorcism Exorcism () is the religious or spiritual practice of evicting demons, jinns, or other malevolent spiritual entities from a person, or an area, that is believed to be possessed. Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the exorcist, this may be ...

s and hallowings carried out by priests are a sort of

witchcraft Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have us ...

and are incompatible with Christian theology.

Sixth conclusion: clerics in secular offices

The sixth conclusion asserts that it is inappropriate for men who hold high office in the Church to simultaneously hold positions of great temporal power.

Seventh conclusion: prayers for the dead

The seventh conclusion asserts that prayers for the souls of specific individual deceased persons is uncharitable, since it implicitly excludes all the other blessed dead who are not being prayed for, and that the practice of requesting prayers for the dead by making financial contributions is a sort of bribery that corrupts the Church.

Eighth conclusion: pilgrimages

The eighth conclusion asserts that the practices of

pilgrimage A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...

and the

veneration of relics Veneration ( la, veneratio; el, τιμάω ), or veneration of saints, is the act of honoring a saint, a person who has been identified as having a high degree of sanctity or holiness. Angels are shown similar veneration in many religions. Etymo ...

at best are ineffectual for spiritual merit and at worst approach idolatry in their worship of created objects.

Ninth conclusion: confession

The ninth conclusion asserts that the practice of

confession A confession is a statement – made by a person or by a group of persons – acknowledging some personal fact that the person (or the group) would ostensibly prefer to keep hidden. The term presumes that the speaker is providing information th ...

for the absolution of sins is blasphemous because only God has the power to forgive sins and because if priests did have that power it would be cruel and uncharitable of them to withhold that forgiveness from anyone, even if they refused to confess.

Tenth conclusion: war, battle, and crusades

The tenth conclusion asserts that Christians should refrain from battle and in particular wars that are given religious justifications, such as

crusade The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were i ...

s, are blasphemous because Christ taught men to love and forgive their enemies.

Eleventh conclusion: female vows of continence and abortion

The eleventh conclusion asserts that women in the Church who have made vows of celibacy are having sex, becoming pregnant, and then seeking

abortion Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion"; these occur in approximately 30% to 40% of pregn ...

s to conceal the fact that they had broken their vows, a practice which the text strongly condemns.

Twelfth conclusion: arts and crafts

The twelfth conclusion asserts that Christians are devoting too much of their energy and attention to the making of beautiful objects of art and craft, and that people should simplify their lives and renew their devotion to godliness by refraining from unnecessary endeavors.

General Prologue to the Wycliffe Bible

The

General Prologue of the Wycliffe Bible A general officer is an officer of high rank in the armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry. In some usages the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colonel."general, adj. and n.". OED O ...

to the later version (1395) gives an allusion to the Lollard ''Twelve Conclusions'' by the use of the words "last parliament". Deanesly, p. 257 It gives an indication that the ''General Prologue'' was written in 1395–1397 for the previous parliament that just took place in 1395 and before the next parliament that took place in 1397. The ''Twelve Conclusions'' and its expanded version of ''Thirty-Seven Conclusions'' is attributed to the author of the ''General Prologue'' of the Wycliffe Bible,

John Purvey John Purvey (c. 1354 – c. 1414) was an English theologian, reformer, and disciple of John Wycliffe. He was born around 1354 in Lathbury, near Newport Pagnell in the county of Buckinghamshire, England. He was a great scholar, permitted to enter ...

, written 1395. Forshall, p. xxv

Notes

References

* Deanesly, Margaret, ''The Lollard Bible and other medieval Biblical versions'', Cambridge University Press, 1920 * Forshall, Josiah, ''The holy bible containing the old and new testaments with the apocryphal books in the earliest english versions made from the latin Vulgate by John Wycliffe and his followers edited by Josiah Forshall and Sir Frederic Madden'', Austrian National Library, University press 1850

External links

Text of the Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards, translated from Middle English
Lollardy Religion and politics 1390s works 1390s in England 14th-century Christian texts {{Proto-Protestantism