Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a
transcontinental country
This is a list of countries with territory that straddles more than one continent, known as transcontinental states or intercontinental states.
Contiguous transcontinental countries are states that have one continuous or immediately-adjacent ...
located mainly on the
Anatolian Peninsula
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The reg ...
in
Western Asia
Western Asia, West Asia, or Southwest Asia, is the westernmost subregion of the larger geographical region of Asia, as defined by some academics, UN bodies and other institutions. It is almost entirely a part of the Middle East, and includes Ana ...
, with a
small portion on the
Balkan Peninsula
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
in
Southeast Europe
Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe (SEE) is a geographical subregion of Europe, consisting primarily of the Balkans. Sovereign states and territories that are included in the region are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia (al ...
. It shares borders with the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
to the north;
Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
to the northeast;
Armenia
Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...
,
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (, ; az, Azərbaycan ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, , also sometimes officially called the Azerbaijan Republic is a transcontinental country located at the boundary of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is a part of th ...
, and
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
to the east;
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
to the southeast;
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
and the
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the ea ...
to the south; the
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea ; tr, Ege Denizi (Greek language, Greek: Αιγαίο Πέλαγος: "Egéo Pélagos", Turkish language, Turkish: "Ege Denizi" or "Adalar Denizi") is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It ...
to the west; and
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
and
Bulgaria
Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
to the northwest.
Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is geo ...
is located off the south coast.
Turks
Turk or Turks may refer to:
Communities and ethnic groups
* Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic languages
* Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
* Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic o ...
form the vast majority of the nation's population and
Kurds ug:كۇردلار
Kurds ( ku, کورد ,Kurd, italic=yes, rtl=yes) or Kurdish people are an Iranian ethnic group native to the mountainous region of Kurdistan in Western Asia, which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Ir ...
are the largest minority.
Ankara
Ankara ( , ; ), historically known as Ancyra and Angora, is the capital of Turkey. Located in the central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of 5.1 million in its urban center and over 5.7 million in Ankara Province, maki ...
is Turkey's capital, while
Istanbul
Istanbul ( , ; tr, İstanbul ), formerly known as Constantinople ( grc-gre, Κωνσταντινούπολις; la, Constantinopolis), is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, serving as the country's economic, ...
is its
largest city
The United Nations uses three definitions for what constitutes a city, as not all cities in all jurisdictions are classified using the same criteria. Cities may be defined as the cities proper, the extent of their urban area, or their metropo ...
and
financial centre
A financial centre ( BE), financial center ( AE), or financial hub, is a location with a concentration of participants in banking, asset management, insurance or financial markets with venues and supporting services for these activities to ta ...
.
One of the world's earliest permanently
settled
A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there, often to colonize the area.
A settler who migrates to an area previously uninhabited or sparsely inhabited may be described as a pioneer.
Settle ...
regions, present-day Turkey was home to important
Neolithic
The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several parts ...
sites like
Göbekli Tepe
Göbekli Tepe (, "Potbelly Hill"; known as ''Girê Mirazan'' or ''Xirabreşkê'' in Kurdish languages, Kurdish) is a Neolithic archaeological site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, between 9500 ...
, and was inhabited by
ancient civilisations including the
Hattians
The Hattians () were an ancient Bronze Age people that inhabited the land of ''Hatti'', in central Anatolia (modern Turkey). They spoke a distinctive Hattian language, which was neither Semitic nor Indo-European. Hattians are attested by arch ...
,
Hittites
The Hittites () were an Anatolian people who played an important role in establishing first a kingdom in Kussara (before 1750 BC), then the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom (c. 1750–1650 BC), and next an empire centered on Hattusa in north-centra ...
,
Anatolian peoples
The Anatolians were Indo-European-speaking peoples of the Anatolian Peninsula in present-day Turkey, identified by their use of the Anatolian languages. These peoples were among the oldest Indo-European ethnolinguistic groups and one of the most ...
,
Mycenaean Greeks
Mycenaean Greece (or the Mycenaean civilization) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the ...
,
Persians
The Persians are an Iranian ethnic group who comprise over half of the population of Iran. They share a common cultural system and are native speakers of the Persian language as well as of the languages that are closely related to Persian.
...
and others.
Following the conquests of
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Maced ...
which started the
Hellenistic period
In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 3 ...
, most of the
ancient regions in modern Turkey were culturally
Hellenised
Hellenization (other British spelling Hellenisation) or Hellenism is the adoption of Greek Greek culture, culture, Religion in Greece, religion, Greek language, language and Ethnic identity, identity by non-Greeks. In the Ancient Greece, ancient ...
, which continued during the
Byzantine era
The Byzantine calendar, also called the Roman calendar, the Creation Era of Constantinople or the Era of the World ( grc, Ἔτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατὰ Ῥωμαίους, also or , abbreviated as ε.Κ.; literal translation of ...
.
The
Seljuk Turks
The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids ( ; fa, سلجوقیان ''Saljuqian'', alternatively spelled as Seljuqs or Saljuqs), also known as Seljuk Turks, Seljuk Turkomans "The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes
by the Turk ...
began migrating in the 11th century, and the
Sultanate of Rum
fa, سلجوقیان روم ()
, status =
, government_type = Hereditary monarchyTriarchy (1249–1254)Diarchy (1257–1262)
, year_start = 1077
, year_end = 1308
, p1 = By ...
ruled Anatolia until the
Mongol invasion
The Mongol invasions and conquests took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire: the Mongol Empire ( 1206- 1368), which by 1300 covered large parts of Eurasia. Historians regard the Mongol devastati ...
in 1243, when it disintegrated into small
Turkish principalities.
Beginning in the late 13th century, the
Ottomans
The Ottoman Turks ( tr, Osmanlı Türkleri), were the Turkic founding and sociopolitically the most dominant ethnic group of the Ottoman Empire ( 1299/1302–1922).
Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks remains scarce, ...
united the principalities and conquered the Balkans, and the
Turkification
Turkification, Turkization, or Turkicization ( tr, Türkleştirme) describes a shift whereby populations or places received or adopted Turkic attributes such as culture, language, history, or ethnicity. However, often this term is more narrowly ...
of Anatolia increased during the
Ottoman period
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
. After
Mehmed II
Mehmed II ( ota, محمد ثانى, translit=Meḥmed-i s̱ānī; tr, II. Mehmed, ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror ( ota, ابو الفتح, Ebū'l-fetḥ, lit=the Father of Conquest, links=no; tr, Fâtih Su ...
conquered Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
(Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman expansion continued under
Selim I
Selim I ( ota, سليم الأول; tr, I. Selim; 10 October 1470 – 22 September 1520), known as Selim the Grim or Selim the Resolute ( tr, links=no, Yavuz Sultan Selim), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520. Despite last ...
. During the reign of
Suleiman the Magnificent
Suleiman I ( ota, سليمان اول, Süleyman-ı Evvel; tr, I. Süleyman; 6 November 14946 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West and Suleiman the Lawgiver ( ota, قانونى سلطان سليمان, Ḳ ...
, the Ottoman Empire became a
global power
In international relations, power is defined in several different ways. Material definitions of state power emphasize economic and military power. Other definitions of power emphasize the ability to structure and constitute the nature of social ...
.
From the late 18th century onwards, the
empire's power declined with a gradual loss of territories.
Mahmud II
Mahmud II ( ota, محمود ثانى, Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî, tr, II. Mahmud; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839.
His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, ...
started a
period of modernisation in the early 19th century. The
Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire. The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to restore the Ottoman Constit ...
of 1908 restricted the authority of the Sultan and
restored
''Restored'' is the fourth
studio album by American contemporary Christian music musician Jeremy Camp. It was released on November 16, 2004 by BEC Recordings.
Track listing
Standard release
Enhanced edition
Deluxe gold edition
Standard ...
the
Ottoman Parliament
The General Assembly ( tr, Meclis-i Umumî (French romanization: "Medjliss Oumoumi" ) or ''Genel Parlamento''; french: Assemblée Générale) was the first attempt at representative democracy by the imperial government of the Ottoman Empire. Als ...
after a 30-year suspension, ushering the empire into a
multi-party period. The
1913 coup d'état put the country under the control of the
Three Pashas
The Three Pashas also known as the Young Turk triumvirate or CUP triumvirate consisted of Mehmed Talaat Pasha (1874–1921), the Grand Vizier (prime minister) and Minister of the Interior; Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922), the Minister of War; ...
, who facilitated the Empire's
entry
Entry may refer to:
*Entry, West Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States
*Entry (cards), a term used in trick-taking card-games
*Entry (economics), a term in connection with markets
* ''Entry'' (film), a 2013 Indian Malayalam fil ...
into
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
as part of the
Central Powers
The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires,german: Mittelmächte; hu, Központi hatalmak; tr, İttifak Devletleri / ; bg, Централни сили, translit=Tsentralni sili was one of the two main coalitions that fought in ...
in 1914. During the war, the Ottoman government committed
genocides
Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part. Raphael Lemkin coined the term in 1944, combining the Greek word (, "race, people") with the Latin ...
against its
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
,
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
and
Assyrian
Assyrian may refer to:
* Assyrian people, the indigenous ethnic group of Mesopotamia.
* Assyria, a major Mesopotamian kingdom and empire.
** Early Assyrian Period
** Old Assyrian Period
** Middle Assyrian Empire
** Neo-Assyrian Empire
* Assyrian ...
subjects.
After its defeat in the war, the Ottoman Empire was
partitioned.
The
Turkish War of Independence
The Turkish War of Independence "War of Liberation", also known figuratively as ''İstiklâl Harbi'' "Independence War" or ''Millî Mücadele'' "National Struggle" (19 May 1919 – 24 July 1923) was a series of military campaigns waged by th ...
against the occupying
Allied Powers resulted in the
abolition of the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, the signing of the
Treaty of Lausanne
The Treaty of Lausanne (french: Traité de Lausanne) was a peace treaty negotiated during the Lausanne Conference of 1922–23 and signed in the Palais de Rumine, Lausanne, Switzerland, on 24 July 1923. The treaty officially settled the conflic ...
(which superseded the
Treaty of Sèvres
The Treaty of Sèvres (french: Traité de Sèvres) was a 1920 treaty signed between the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty ceded large parts of Ottoman territory to France, the United Kingdom, Greece and Italy, as well ...
) on 24 July 1923 and the proclamation of the Republic on 29 October 1923. With the
reforms
Reform ( lat, reformo) means the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc. The use of the word in this way emerges in the late 18th century and is believed to originate from Christopher Wyvill's Association movement ...
initiated by the country's first president,
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, or Mustafa Kemal Pasha until 1921, and Ghazi Mustafa Kemal from 1921 Surname Law (Turkey), until 1934 ( 1881 – 10 November 1938) was a Turkish Mareşal (Turkey), field marshal, Turkish National Movement, re ...
, Turkey became a
secular
Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin ''saeculum'', "worldly" or "of a generation"), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negativ ...
,
unitary
Unitary may refer to:
Mathematics
* Unitary divisor
* Unitary element
* Unitary group
* Unitary matrix
* Unitary morphism
* Unitary operator
* Unitary transformation
* Unitary representation
* Unitarity (physics)
* ''E''-unitary inverse semigroup ...
and
parliamentary republic
A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number ...
. Turkey played a prominent role in the
Korean War
, date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
and joined
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...
in 1952. The country endured several military
coups in the latter half of the 20th century. The economy was liberalised in the 1980s, leading to stronger economic growth and political stability. The parliamentary republic was replaced with a
presidential system
A presidential system, or single executive system, is a form of government in which a head of government, typically with the title of president, leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch in systems that use separati ...
by
referendum in 2017.
Turkey is a
regional power
In international relations, since the late 20thcentury, the term "regional power" has been used for a sovereign state that exercises significant power within a given geographical region.Joachim Betz, Ian Taylor"The Rise of (New) Regional Powe ...
and a
newly industrialized country
The category of newly industrialized country (NIC), newly industrialized economy (NIE) or middle income country is a socioeconomic classification applied to several countries around the world by political scientists and economists. They represent ...
, with a geopolitically strategic location.
Its
economy
An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...
, which is classified among the
emerging and growth-leading economies
Emerging and growth-leading economies (EAGLEs) are a grouping of key emerging markets developed by BBVA Research. The EAGLE economies are expected to lead global growth in the next 10 years, and to provide important opportunities for investor ...
, is the
twentieth-largest in the world by nominal GDP, and the
eleventh-largest by
PPP. In addition to being an early member of NATO, Turkey is a charter member of the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
, the
IMF, and the
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. The World Bank is the collective name for the Interna ...
, and a founding member of the
OECD
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; french: Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, ''OCDE'') is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate e ...
,
OSCE
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's largest regional security-oriented intergovernmental organization with observer status at the United Nations. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, prom ...
,
BSEC
The Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) is a regional international organization focusing on multilateral political and economic initiatives aimed at fostering cooperation, peace, stability and prosperity in the Black Sea ...
,
OIC,
OTS and
G20
The G20 or Group of Twenty is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 countries and the European Union (EU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international financial stability, climate change mitigation, ...
. After becoming
one of the early members of the
Council of Europe
The Council of Europe (CoE; french: Conseil de l'Europe, ) is an international organisation founded in the wake of World War II to uphold European Convention on Human Rights, human rights, democracy and the Law in Europe, rule of law in Europe. ...
in 1950, Turkey became an
associate member of the
EEC
The European Economic Community (EEC) was a regional organization created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957,Today the largely rewritten treaty continues in force as the ''Treaty on the functioning of the European Union'', as renamed by the Lisb ...
in 1963, joined the
EU Customs Union
The European Union Customs Union (EUCU), formally known as the Community Customs Union, is a customs union which consists of all the member states of the European Union (EU), Monaco, and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekel ...
in 1995, and started
accession negotiations with the
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
in 2005. Turkey has a rich cultural legacy shaped by centuries of history and the influence of the various peoples that have inhabited its territory over several millennia; it is home to
19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is
among the most visited countries in the world.
Name
The English name of Turkey (from
Medieval Latin
Medieval Latin was the form of Literary Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned ...
/
) means "land of the Turks".
Middle English
Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English p ...
usage of ''Turkye'' is evidenced in an early work by
Chaucer
Geoffrey Chaucer (; – 25 October 1400) was an English poet, author, and civil servant best known for '' The Canterbury Tales''. He has been called the "father of English literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English poetry". He w ...
called ''
The Book of the Duchess
''The Book of the Duchess'', also known as ''The Deth of Blaunche'',
''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1910. Accessed 11 March ...
'' (). The phrase ''land of Torke'' is used in the 15th-century
Digby Mysteries. Later usages can be found in the
Dunbar poems, the 16th century (''Turkie'') and
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban (; 22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626), also known as Lord Verulam, was an English philosopher and statesman who served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Bacon led the advancement of both ...
's (''Turky''). The modern spelling Turkey dates back to at least 1719.
The name of Turkey appeared in the Western sources after the
crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were in ...
.
In the 14th-century Arab sources, ''turkiyya'' is usually contrasted with ''turkmaniyya'' (
Turkomania), probably to be understood as
Oghuz in a broad sense.
Ibn Battuta
Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (, ; 24 February 13041368/1369),; fully: ; Arabic: commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Berbers, Berber Maghrebi people, Maghrebi scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, ...
, in the 1330s introduces the region as ''barr al-Turkiyya al-ma'ruf bi-bilad al-Rum'' ("the Turkish land known as the lands of Rum"). The disintegration of the country after
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
revived
Turkish nationalism
Turkish nationalism ( tr, Türk milliyetçiliği) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either a Turkey#Demographics, national, Turkish people, ethnic, or Turkish language, linguistic group. The term "ultrana ...
, and the ''Türkler için Türkiye'' ("Turkey for the Turks") sentiment rose up. With the
Treaty of Alexandropol
The Treaty of Alexandropol ( hy, Ալեքսանդրապոլի պայմանագիր; tr, Gümrü Anlaşması) was a peace treaty between the First Republic of Armenia and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The treaty ended the Turkish-Armeni ...
signed by the
Government of the Grand National Assembly
The Government of the Grand National Assembly ( tr, Büyük Millet Meclisi Hükûmeti), self-identified as the State of Turkey () or Turkey (), commonly known as the Ankara Government (),Kemal Kirişci, Gareth M. Winrow: ''The Kurdish Question and ...
with
Armenia
Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...
, the name of ''Türkiye'' entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with
Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
, the expression ''Devlet-i Aliyye-i Türkiyye'' ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire's name.
[
]
Official name change
In January 2020, the Turkish Exporters' Assembly (TİM) — the umbrella organisation of Turkish exports — announced that it would use "Made in Türkiye" on all its labels in a bid to standardise branding and the identity of Turkish businesses on the international stage, using the term 'Türkiye' across all languages around the world.
In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (born 26 February 1954) is a Turkish politician serving as the List of presidents of Turkey, 12th and current president of Turkey since 2014. He previously served as prime minister of Turkey from 2003 to 2014 and as Lis ...
issued a circular calling for exports to be labelled "Made in Türkiye". The circular also stated that in relation to other governmental communications "necessary sensitivity will be shown on the use of the phrase 'Türkiye' instead of phrases such as 'Turkey', 'Türkei', 'Turquie' etc." The reason given in the circular for preferring ''Türkiye'' was that it "represents and expresses the culture, civilisation, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way". According to Turkish state broadcaster TRT World
TRT World is a Turkish public broadcaster international news channel which broadcasts in English 24 hours a day, operated by the TRT and based in Taksim Square, Istıklal Avenue, Beyoğlu, Istanbul. It provides worldwide news and current affair ...
, it was also to avoid a pejorative association with turkey, the bird. It was reported in January 2022 that the government planned to register ''Türkiye'' with the United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
. Minister of Foreign Affairs Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu
Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu (; born 5 February 1968) is a Turkish diplomat and politician who has served as Minister of Foreign Affairs of Turkey since 24 November 2015.
He previously served in the same position from August 2014 to August 2015. He is ...
sent letters to the UN and other international organisations on 31 May 2022 requesting that they use ''Türkiye''. The UN agreed and implemented the request immediately.
History
Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace
The Anatolian peninsula
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The reg ...
, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world. Various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
, from at least the Neolithic
The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several parts ...
until the Hellenistic period
In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 3 ...
. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages
The Anatolian languages are an extinct branch of Indo-European languages that were spoken in Anatolia, part of present-day Turkey. The best known Anatolian language is Hittite, which is considered the earliest-attested Indo-European language.
...
, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutch ...
: and, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian
The Luwians were a group of Anatolian peoples who lived in central, western, and southern Anatolia, in present-day Turkey, during the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. They spoke the Luwian language, an Indo-European language of the Anatolian sub-fa ...
languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace
Eastern may refer to:
Transportation
*China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai
* Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways
* Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991
*Eastern Air ...
, has also been inhabited since at least forty thousand years ago, and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by about 6000 BC. The spread of agriculture from the Middle East to Europe was strongly correlated with the migration
Migration, migratory, or migrate may refer to: Human migration
* Human migration, physical movement by humans from one region to another
** International migration, when peoples cross state boundaries and stay in the host state for some minimum le ...
of early farmers from Anatolia about 9,000 years ago, and was not just a cultural exchange. Anatolian Neolithic farmers derived a significant portion of their ancestry from the Anatolian hunter-gatherers
Epipaleolithic that inhabited central around 13,642-13,073 BCE. This population constitutes one of the three currently known ancestral genetic contributions of the present-day Europeans: Western Hunter Gatherers (WHG), Anatolian Neolithic Farmers ...
.
Göbekli Tepe
Göbekli Tepe (, "Potbelly Hill"; known as ''Girê Mirazan'' or ''Xirabreşkê'' in Kurdish languages, Kurdish) is a Neolithic archaeological site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, between 9500 ...
is the site of the oldest known man-made religious structure, a temple dating to circa 10,000 BC, while Çatalhöyük
Çatalhöyük (; also ''Çatal Höyük'' and ''Çatal Hüyük''; from Turkish ''çatal'' "fork" + ''höyük'' "tumulus") is a tell of a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from appr ...
is a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic
The Copper Age, also called the Chalcolithic (; from grc-gre, χαλκός ''khalkós'', "copper" and ''líthos'', "stone") or (A)eneolithic (from Latin '' aeneus'' "of copper"), is an archaeological period characterized by regular ...
settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site
A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
. Nevalı Çori
Nevalı Çori ( tr, Nevali Çori, ku, Newala Çorî) was an early Neolithic settlement on the middle Euphrates, in Şanlıurfa Province, Southeastern Anatolia, Turkey. The site is known for having some of the world's oldest known temples and monu ...
was an early Neolithic
The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several parts ...
settlement on the middle Euphrates, in Şanlıurfa
Urfa, officially known as Şanlıurfa () and in ancient times as Edessa, is a city in southeastern Turkey and the capital of Şanlıurfa Province. Urfa is situated on a plain about 80 km east of the Euphrates River. Its climate features ext ...
. Urfa Man
The Urfa man, also known as the Balıklıgöl statue, is an ancient human shaped statue found during excavations in Balıklıgöl near Urfa, in the geographical area of Upper Mesopotamia, in the southeast of modern Turkey. It is dated to the per ...
statue is dated to the period of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic
The Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) represents the early Neolithic in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian region of the Fertile Crescent, dating to years ago, (10000 – 6500 BCE).Richard, Suzanne ''Near Eastern archaeology'' Eisenbrauns; il ...
, and is considered as "the oldest naturalistic life-sized sculpture of a human". It is considered as contemporaneous with the sites of Göbekli Tepe
Göbekli Tepe (, "Potbelly Hill"; known as ''Girê Mirazan'' or ''Xirabreşkê'' in Kurdish languages, Kurdish) is a Neolithic archaeological site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, between 9500 ...
. The settlement of Troy
Troy ( el, Τροία and Latin: Troia, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭 ''Truwiša'') or Ilion ( el, Ίλιον and Latin: Ilium, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒃾𒇻𒊭 ''Wiluša'') was an ancient city located at Hisarlik in prese ...
started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age (Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly appl ...
.
The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians
The Hattians () were an ancient Bronze Age people that inhabited the land of ''Hatti'', in central Anatolia (modern Turkey). They spoke a distinctive Hattian language, which was neither Semitic nor Indo-European. Hattians are attested by arch ...
and Hurrians
The Hurrians (; cuneiform: ; transliteration: ''Ḫu-ur-ri''; also called Hari, Khurrites, Hourri, Churri, Hurri or Hurriter) were a people of the Bronze Age Near East. They spoke a Hurrian language and lived in Anatolia, Syria and Northern Mes ...
, non-Indo-European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively, as early as c. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittites
The Hittites () were an Anatolian people who played an important role in establishing first a kingdom in Kussara (before 1750 BC), then the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom (c. 1750–1650 BC), and next an empire centered on Hattusa in north-centra ...
came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians c. 2000–1700 BC. The first major empire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th century BC. The Assyria
Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , romanized: ''māt Aššur''; syc, ܐܬܘܪ, ʾāthor) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state at times controlling regional territories in the indigenous lands of the A ...
ns conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC, although they have remained a minority in the region, namely in Hakkari Hakkari or Hakkâri may refer to:
*Hakkari (historical region), a historical region in modern-day Turkey and Iraq
*Hakkâri (city), a city and the capital of Hakkâri Province, Turkey
*Hakkâri Province
Hakkâri Province (, tr, Hakkâri ili, ...
, Şırnak
Şırnak ( ku, شرنەخ, Şirnex) is a town in southeastern Turkey. It is the capital of Şırnak Province, a new province that split from the Mardin and Siirt provinces. The Habur border gate with Iraq which is one of Turkey's main links to Arab ...
and Mardin
Mardin ( ku, Mêrdîn; ar, ماردين; syr, ܡܪܕܝܢ, Merdīn; hy, Մարդին) is a city in southeastern Turkey. The capital of Mardin Province, it is known for the Artuqid architecture of its old city, and for its strategic location on ...
.
Urartu
Urartu (; Assyrian: ',Eberhard Schrader, ''The Cuneiform inscriptions and the Old Testament'' (1885), p. 65. Babylonian: ''Urashtu'', he, אֲרָרָט ''Ararat'') is a geographical region and Iron Age kingdom also known as the Kingdom of Va ...
re-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC as a powerful northern rival of Assyria. Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the Phrygia
In classical antiquity, Phrygia ( ; grc, Φρυγία, ''Phrygía'' ) was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now Asian Turkey, centered on the Sangarios River. After its conquest, it became a region of the great empires ...
ns, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians
The Cimmerians (Akkadian: , romanized: ; Hebrew: , romanized: ; Ancient Greek: , romanized: ; Latin: ) were an ancient Eastern Iranian equestrian nomadic people originating in the Caspian steppe, part of whom subsequently migrated into West A ...
in the 7th century BC. Starting from 714 BC, Urartu shared the same fate and dissolved in 590 BC, when it was conquered by the Medes
The Medes (Old Persian: ; Akkadian: , ; Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) were an ancient Iranian people who spoke the Median language and who inhabited an area known as Media between western and northern Iran. Around the 11th century BC, the ...
. The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were Lydia
Lydia (Lydian language, Lydian: 𐤮𐤱𐤠𐤭𐤣𐤠, ''Śfarda''; Aramaic: ''Lydia''; el, Λυδία, ''Lȳdíā''; tr, Lidya) was an Iron Age Monarchy, kingdom of western Asia Minor located generally east of ancient Ionia in the mod ...
, Caria
Caria (; from Greek: Καρία, ''Karia''; tr, Karya) was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid-Ionia (Mycale) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia. The Ionians, Ionian and Dorians, Dorian Greeks colonized the west of i ...
and Lycia
Lycia (Lycian language, Lycian: 𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊖 ''Trm̃mis''; el, Λυκία, ; tr, Likya) was a state or nationality that flourished in Anatolia from 15–14th centuries BC (as Lukka) to 546 BC. It bordered the Mediterranean ...
.
Sardis
Sardis () or Sardes (; Lydian: 𐤳𐤱𐤠𐤭𐤣 ''Sfard''; el, Σάρδεις ''Sardeis''; peo, Sparda; hbo, ספרד ''Sfarad'') was an ancient city at the location of modern ''Sart'' (Sartmahmut before 19 October 2005), near Salihli, ...
was an ancient city at the location of modern Sart in Western Turkey. The city served as the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia
Lydia (Lydian language, Lydian: 𐤮𐤱𐤠𐤭𐤣𐤠, ''Śfarda''; Aramaic: ''Lydia''; el, Λυδία, ''Lȳdíā''; tr, Lidya) was an Iron Age Monarchy, kingdom of western Asia Minor located generally east of ancient Ionia in the mod ...
. As one of the seven churches of Asia
The Seven Churches of Revelation, also known as the Seven Churches of the Apocalypse and the Seven Churches of Asia, are seven major Churches of Early Christianity, as mentioned in the New Testament Book of Revelation. All of them are located in ...
, it was addressed in the Book of Revelation
The Book of Revelation is the final book of the New Testament (and consequently the final book of the Christian Bible). Its title is derived from the first word of the Koine Greek text: , meaning "unveiling" or "revelation". The Book of R ...
in the New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christ ...
, The Lydian Lion coins were made of electrum
Electrum is a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, with trace amounts of copper and other metals. Its color ranges from pale to bright yellow, depending on the proportions of gold and silver. It has been produced artificially, and ...
, a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver but of variable precious metal value. During the reign of King Croesus
Croesus ( ; Lydian: ; Phrygian: ; grc, Κροισος, Kroisos; Latin: ; reigned: c. 585 – c. 546 BC) was the king of Lydia, who reigned from 585 BC until his defeat by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 547 or 546 BC.
Croesus was ...
that the metallurgist
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are known as alloys.
Metallurgy encompasses both the sc ...
s of Sardis discovered the secret of separating gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile met ...
from silver
Silver is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂erǵ-, ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, whi ...
, thereby producing both metals of a purity never known before.
Antiquity
Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia was heavily settled by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks
The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, namely Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt, and, to a lesser extent, oth ...
. Numerous important cities
A city is a human settlement of notable size.Goodall, B. (1987) ''The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography''. London: Penguin.Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) ''The Social Science Encyclopedia''. 2nd edition. London: Routledge. It can be def ...
were founded by these colonists, such as Didyma
Didyma (; grc, Δίδυμα) was an ancient Greek sanctuary on the coast of Ionia in the domain of the famous city of Miletus. Apollo was the main deity of the sanctuary of Didyma, also called ''Didymaion''. But it was home to both of the tem ...
, Miletus
Miletus (; gr, Μῑ́λητος, Mī́lētos; Hittite transcription ''Millawanda'' or ''Milawata'' (exonyms); la, Mīlētus; tr, Milet) was an ancient Greek city on the western coast of Anatolia, near the mouth of the Maeander River in a ...
, Ephesus
Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in t ...
, Smyrna
Smyrna ( ; grc, Σμύρνη, Smýrnē, or , ) was a Greek city located at a strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Due to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence, and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to promi ...
(now İzmir
İzmir ( , ; ), also spelled Izmir, is a metropolitan city in the western extremity of Anatolia, capital of the province of the same name. It is the third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara and the second largest urban agglo ...
) and Byzantium
Byzantium () or Byzantion ( grc, Βυζάντιον) was an ancient Greek city in classical antiquity that became known as Constantinople in late antiquity and Istanbul today. The Greek name ''Byzantion'' and its Latinization ''Byzantium'' cont ...
(now Istanbul
Istanbul ( , ; tr, İstanbul ), formerly known as Constantinople ( grc-gre, Κωνσταντινούπολις; la, Constantinopolis), is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, serving as the country's economic, ...
), the latter founded by Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
colonists from Megara
Megara (; el, Μέγαρα, ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis Island, Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, befo ...
in 657 BC. Some of the most prominent pre-Socratic philosophers lived in the city of Miletus
Miletus (; gr, Μῑ́λητος, Mī́lētos; Hittite transcription ''Millawanda'' or ''Milawata'' (exonyms); la, Mīlētus; tr, Milet) was an ancient Greek city on the western coast of Anatolia, near the mouth of the Maeander River in a ...
. Thales of Miletus
Thales of Miletus ( ; grc-gre, Θαλῆς; ) was a Greek mathematician, astronomer, statesman, and pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Ionia, Asia Minor. He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regarded him ...
(c. 624 BC – c. 546 BC) considered as first philosopher in the Greek tradition. and he is otherwise historically recognized as the first individual known to have entertained and engaged in scientific philosophy.[Frank N. Magill]
''The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography'', Volume 1
Routledge, 2003 In Miletus, he is followed by two other significant pre-Socratic philosophers
Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as early Greek philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates. Pre-Socratic philosophers were mostly interested in cosmology, the beginning and the substance of the universe, but the inquiries of thes ...
Anaximander
Anaximander (; grc-gre, Ἀναξίμανδρος ''Anaximandros''; ) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus,"Anaximander" in ''Chambers's Encyclopædia''. London: George Newnes, 1961, Vol. 1, p. 403. a city of Ionia (in moder ...
(c. 610 BC – c. 546 BC) and Anaximenes (c. 585 BC – c. 525 BC) (known collectively, to modern scholars, as the Milesian school
The Ionian school of Pre-Socratic philosophy was centred in Miletus, Ionia in the 6th century BC. Miletus and its environment was a thriving mercantile melting pot of current ideas of the time. The Ionian School included such thinkers as Thales ...
).
For several centuries prior to the great Persian invasion of Greece
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
, perhaps the very greatest and wealthiest city of the Greek world was Miletus, which founded more colonies than any other Greek city, particularly in the Black Sea region. Diogenes the Cynic
Diogenes ( ; grc, Διογένης, Diogénēs ), also known as Diogenes the Cynic (, ) or Diogenes of Sinope, was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynicism (philosophy). He was born in Sinope, an Ionian colony on the Black Sea ...
was one of the founders of Cynic philosophy born in one of the Ionian colonies Sinope on the Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
coast of Anatolia in 412.[''Diogenes of Sinope'' ]
Trojan War
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has ...
took place in the ancient city of Troy
Troy ( el, Τροία and Latin: Troia, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭 ''Truwiša'') or Ilion ( el, Ίλιον and Latin: Ilium, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒃾𒇻𒊭 ''Wiluša'') was an ancient city located at Hisarlik in prese ...
by the Achaeans (Greeks
The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, namely Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt, and, to a lesser extent, oth ...
) after Paris
Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...
of Troy took Helen
Helen may refer to:
People
* Helen of Troy, in Greek mythology, the most beautiful woman in the world
* Helen (actress) (born 1938), Indian actress
* Helen (given name), a given name (including a list of people with the name)
Places
* Helen, ...
from her husband Menelaus
In Greek mythology, Menelaus (; grc-gre, Μενέλαος , 'wrath of the people', ) was a king of Mycenaean (pre- Dorian) Sparta. According to the ''Iliad'', Menelaus was a central figure in the Trojan War, leading the Spartan contingent of th ...
, king of Sparta
Sparta ( Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, ''Spártā''; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, ''Spártē'') was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta referre ...
. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has been narrated through many works of Greek literature
Greek literature () dates back from the ancient Greek literature, beginning in 800 BC, to the modern Greek literature of today.
Ancient Greek literature was written in an Ancient Greek dialect, literature ranges from the oldest surviving writte ...
, most notably Homer
Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
's ''Iliad
The ''Iliad'' (; grc, Ἰλιάς, Iliás, ; "a poem about Ilium") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odysse ...
''. Whether there is any historical reality behind the Trojan War remains an open question. Those who believe that the stories of the Trojan War are derived from a specific historical conflict usually date it to the 12th or 11th century BC, often preferring the dates given by Eratosthenes
Eratosthenes of Cyrene (; grc-gre, Ἐρατοσθένης ; – ) was a Greek polymath: a mathematician, geographer, poet, astronomer, and music theorist. He was a man of learning, becoming the chief librarian at the Library of Alexandria ...
, 1194–1184 BC, which roughly correspond to archaeological evidence of a catastrophic burning of Troy VII
Troy in the Late Bronze Age was a thriving coastal city consisting of a steep fortified citadel and a sprawling lower town below it. It had a considerable population and extensive foreign contacts, including with Mycenaean Greece. Geographic and li ...
, and the Late Bronze Age collapse
The Late Bronze Age collapse was a time of widespread societal collapse during the 12th century BC, between c. 1200 and 1150. The collapse affected a large area of the Eastern Mediterranean (North Africa and Southeast Europe) and the Near East ...
.
The first state that was called Armenia
Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...
by neighbouring peoples was the state of the Armenians, Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of what is now eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC. In Northwest Turkey, the most significant tribal group in Thrace was the Odrysian kingdom, Odyrisians, founded by Teres I.
All of modern-day Turkey was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire during the 6th century BC.[Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington]
"A companion to Ancient Macedonia"
John Wiley & Sons, 2011. pp. 135–138, 343 The Greco-Persian Wars started when the Greek city states on the coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule in 499 BC.
Artemisia I of Caria was a queen of the ancient Greek city-state of Halicarnassus and she fought as an ally of Xerxes I, King of Persia against the independent Greek city states during the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC.
The territory of Turkey later fell to Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Maced ...
in 334 BC, which led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the area. Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms, all of which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC. The process of Hellenization that began with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and by the early centuries of the Christian Era, the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture. From the 1st century BC up to the 3rd century AD, large parts of modern-day Turkey were contested between the Roman Empire, Romans and neighbouring Parthian Empire, Parthians through the frequent Roman-Parthian Wars.
Galatia was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia inhabited by the Celts. The terms "Galatians" came to be used by the Greeks for the three Celtic peoples of Anatolia: the Tectosages, the Trocmii, and the Tolistobogii. By the 1st century BC the Celts had become so Hellenization, Hellenized that some Greek writers called them ''Hellenogalatai'' (Ἑλληνογαλάται). Galatia was named after the Gauls from Thrace (cf. Tylis), who settled here and became a small transient foreign tribe in the 3rd century BC, following the supposed Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC.
Kingdom of Pontus was a Hellenistic period, Hellenistic kingdom, centered in the historical region of Pontus (region), Pontus and ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty of Persian people, Persian origin, which may have been directly related to Darius I, Darius the Great and the Achaemenid dynasty. The kingdom was proclaimed by Mithridates I of Pontus, Mithridates I in 281 BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 63 BC. The Kingdom of Pontus reached its largest extent under Mithridates VI the Great, who conquered Colchis, Cappadocia, Bithynia, the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos. After a long struggle with Roman Empire, Rome in the Mithridatic Wars, Pontus was defeated.
All territories corresponding to modern Turkey eventually fell into Roman Empire’s control.
Early Christian and Roman period
According to the Acts of Apostles, Antioch (now Antakya), a city in southern Turkey, is where followers of Jesus were Early Christianity, first called "Christians" and became very quickly an important Early centers of Christianity, center of Christianity. Paul the Apostle traveled to Ephesus
Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in t ...
and stayed there for almost three years, probably working there as a tentmaker. He is claimed to have performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary activity in other regions. Paul left Ephesus
Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in t ...
after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot involving most of the city.
In the year 123, Emperor Hadrian traveled to Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
. Numerous monuments were erected for his arrival and he met his lover Antinous from Bithynia. Hadrian focused on the Greek revival and built several temples and improved the cities. Cyzicus, Pergamon, Smyrna
Smyrna ( ; grc, Σμύρνη, Smýrnē, or , ) was a Greek city located at a strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Due to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence, and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to promi ...
, Ephesus
Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in t ...
and Sardes were promoted as regional centres for the Imperial cult (ancient Rome), Imperial cult (neocorate, ''neocoros'') during this period.
Byzantine period
In 324 AD, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it New Rome. Under Constantine, Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state, but enjoyed imperial preference since Constantine the Great and Christianity, he supported it with generous privileges. Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons, the city, which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This empire, which would later be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of present-day Turkey until the Late Middle Ages; although the eastern regions remained firmly in Sasanian hands until the first half of the 7th century. The frequent Byzantine-Sassanid Wars, a continuation of the centuries-long Roman-Persian Wars, took place in various parts of present-day Turkey between the 4th and 7th centuries. Several ecumenical councils of the early Church were held in cities located in present-day Turkey, including the First Council of Nicaea (Iznik) in 325, the First Council of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 381, the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the Council of Chalcedon (Kadıköy) in 451. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe.
Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire
The Seljuq dynasty, House of Seljuk originated from the ''Kınık (tribe), Kınık'' branch of the Oghuz Turks who resided on the periphery of the Muslim history#Abbasids - "Islamic Golden Age", Muslim world, in the Oghuz Yabgu State, Yabgu Khaganate of the Oğuz confederacy, to the north of the Caspian Sea, Caspian and Aral Seas, in the 9th century. In the 10th century, the Seljuks started migrating from their ancestral homeland into Persia, which became the administrative core of the Seljuk Empire, Great Seljuk Empire, after its foundation by Tughril.
In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and the eastern regions of Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, starting the Turkification
Turkification, Turkization, or Turkicization ( tr, Türkleştirme) describes a shift whereby populations or places received or adopted Turkic attributes such as culture, language, history, or ethnicity. However, often this term is more narrowly ...
process in the area; the Turkish language and Islam were introduced to Anatolia, gradually spreading throughout the region. The slow transition from a predominantly Christians, Christian and Greek language, Greek-speaking Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was underway. The Mevlevi Order of dervishes, which was established in Konya during the 13th century by Sufi poet Celaleddin Rumi, played a significant role in the Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia who had previously been Hellenized. Thus, alongside the Turkification of the territory, the Persianate society, culturally Persianized Seljuks set the basis for a Turko-Persian tradition, Turko-Persian principal culture in Anatolia, which their eventual successors, Culture of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottomans, would take over.
In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongol Empire, Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ, causing the Seljuk Empire's power to slowly disintegrate. In its wake, one of the Turkish principalities governed by Osman I would evolve over the next 200 years into the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by Fall of Constantinople, capturing its capital, Constantinople, in 1453: their commander thenceforth being known as Mehmed the Conqueror.
In 1514, Sultan Selim I
Selim I ( ota, سليم الأول; tr, I. Selim; 10 October 1470 – 22 September 1520), known as Selim the Grim or Selim the Resolute ( tr, links=no, Yavuz Sultan Selim), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520. Despite last ...
(1512–1520) successfully expanded the empire's southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safavid dynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into Ottoman Algeria, Algeria and Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517), Egypt, and created a naval presence in the Red Sea. Subsequently, a contest started between the Ottoman and Portuguese Empire, Portuguese empires to become the dominant sea power in the Indian Ocean, with Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean, a number of naval battles in the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean was perceived as a threat to the Ottoman monopoly over the Silk Road, ancient trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe. Despite the increasingly prominent European presence, the Ottoman Empire's trade with the east continued to flourish until the second half of the 18th century.
The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent
Suleiman I ( ota, سليمان اول, Süleyman-ı Evvel; tr, I. Süleyman; 6 November 14946 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West and Suleiman the Lawgiver ( ota, قانونى سلطان سليمان, Ḳ ...
, who personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law.
The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The Ottoman Navy contended with several Holy Leagues, such as those in Holy League (1538), 1538, Holy League (1571), 1571, Holy League (1684), 1684 and Holy League (1717), 1717 (composed primarily of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, the Knights Hospitaller, Knights of St. John, the Papal States, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy), for the control of the Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the ea ...
.
In the east, the Ottomans were often at war with Safavid Persia over conflicts stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries. The Ottoman-Persian Wars, Ottoman wars with Persia continued as the Zand dynasty, Zand, Afsharid dynasty, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasty, Qajar dynasties succeeded the Safavids in Iran, until the Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823), first half of the 19th century.
Even further east, there was an extension of the Habsburg-Ottoman conflict, in that the Ottomans also had to Ottoman expedition to Aceh, send soldiers to their farthest and easternmost vassal and territory, the Aceh Sultanate in Southeast Asia, to defend it from European colonizers as well as the Juan de Salcedo, Latino invaders who had crossed from Latin America and had Christianized the formerly Muslim-dominated Islam in the Philippines, Philippines.
From the 16th to the early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire also Russo-Turkish Wars, fought twelve wars with the Tsardom of Russia, Russian Tsardom and Russian Empire, Empire. These were initially about Ottoman territorial expansion and consolidation in southeastern and eastern Europe; but starting from the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), they became more about the survival of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun to lose its strategic territories on the northern Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
coast to the advancing Russians.
From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Decline of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Empire began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II
Mahmud II ( ota, محمود ثانى, Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî, tr, II. Mahmud; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839.
His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, ...
just before his death in 1839, aimed to modernise the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The efforts of Midhat Pasha during the late Tanzimat era led the Ottoman Ottoman constitution of 1876, constitutional movement of 1876, which introduced the First Constitutional Era, but these efforts proved to be inadequate in most fields, and failed to stop the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, dissolution of the empire.
As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the Great Eastern Crisis, Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875 which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878); many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in Anatolia, along with the Circassians fleeing the Russian–Circassian War, Russian conquest of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus, Caucasus. According to some estimates, 800,000 Muslim Circassians died during the Circassian genocide in the territory of present-day Russia, the survivors seek refugee in Ottoman Empire. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire, rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, Armenians, which claimed up to 300,000 lives.
The loss of Rumelia (Ottoman territories in Europe) with the First Balkan War (1912–1913) was followed by the arrival of millions of Muslim refugees (''muhacir'') to Istanbul and Anatolia. Historically, the Rumelia Eyalet and Anatolia Eyalet had formed the administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire, administrative core of the Ottoman Empire, with their governors titled Beylerbeyi participating in the Sultan's Imperial Council (Ottoman Empire), Divan, so the loss of all Balkan provinces beyond the Kıyıköy, Midye-Enez border line according to the London Conference of 1912–13 and the Treaty of London (1913) was a major shock for the Ottoman society and led to the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état. In the Second Balkan War (1913) the Ottomans managed to recover their former capital Edirne (Adrianople) and its surrounding areas in East Thrace, which was formalised with the Treaty of Constantinople (1913). The 1913 coup d'état effectively put the country under the control of the Three Pashas
The Three Pashas also known as the Young Turk triumvirate or CUP triumvirate consisted of Mehmed Talaat Pasha (1874–1921), the Grand Vizier (prime minister) and Minister of the Interior; Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922), the Minister of War; ...
, making sultans Mehmed V and Mehmed VI largely symbolic figureheads with no real political power.
The Ottoman Empire entered World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
on the side of the Central Powers
The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires,german: Mittelmächte; hu, Központi hatalmak; tr, İttifak Devletleri / ; bg, Централни сили, translit=Tsentralni sili was one of the two main coalitions that fought in ...
and was ultimately defeated. The Ottomans successfully defended the Dardanelles strait during the Gallipoli campaign (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the Mesopotamian campaign, such as the Siege of Kut (1915–1916); but the Arab Revolt (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the Caucasus campaign, however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the Battle of Sarikamish (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern Anatolia and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk following the Russian Revolution (1917). During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were Tehcir Law, deported to Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
as part of the Armenian genocide. As a result, an estimated 600,000 to more than 1 million, or up to 1.5 million[Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. .] Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has Armenian genocide denial, refused to acknowledge the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only Population transfer, "relocated" from the eastern war zone. Late Ottoman genocides, Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrian genocide, Assyrians and Greek genocide, Greeks. The share of non-Muslims in area within Turkey's current borders declined from 20-22% in 1914, or about 3.3.–3.6 million people, to around 3% in 1927.
Following the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought to partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, partition the Ottoman state through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres
The Treaty of Sèvres (french: Traité de Sèvres) was a 1920 treaty signed between the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty ceded large parts of Ottoman territory to France, the United Kingdom, Greece and Italy, as well ...
.
Republic of Turkey
The occupation of Constantinople, occupation of Istanbul (1918) and Occupation of Smyrna, İzmir (1919) by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish National Movement. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence
The Turkish War of Independence "War of Liberation", also known figuratively as ''İstiklâl Harbi'' "Independence War" or ''Millî Mücadele'' "National Struggle" (19 May 1919 – 24 July 1923) was a series of military campaigns waged by th ...
(1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres
The Treaty of Sèvres (french: Traité de Sèvres) was a 1920 treaty signed between the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty ceded large parts of Ottoman territory to France, the United Kingdom, Greece and Italy, as well ...
(1920).
By 18 September 1922 the Greek, Armenian and French armies had been expelled, and the Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara
Ankara ( , ; ), historically known as Ancyra and Angora, is the capital of Turkey. Located in the central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of 5.1 million in its urban center and over 5.7 million in Ankara Province, maki ...
, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on Grand National Assembly of Turkey, 23 April 1920, started to formalise the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate, abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne
The Treaty of Lausanne (french: Traité de Lausanne) was a peace treaty negotiated during the Lausanne Conference of 1922–23 and signed in the Palais de Rumine, Lausanne, Switzerland, on 24 July 1923. The treaty officially settled the conflic ...
of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres, led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed "Republic of Turkey" as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital. The Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey, whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey.
Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first President of Turkey, President and subsequently introduced Atatürk's Reforms, many reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the old Millet (Ottoman Empire), religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman constitutional monarchy into a Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary republic
A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number ...
under a Turkish Constitution of 1924, secular constitution. With the Surname Law of 1934, the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (''Father Turk'').
The Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits, Montreux Convention (1936) restored Turkey's control over the Turkish Straits, including the right to militarise the coastlines of the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits and the Sea of Marmara, and to block maritime traffic in wartime.
Following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, some Kurds, Kurdish and Zazas, Zaza tribes, which were feudalism, feudal (manorialism, manorial) communities led by tribal chief, chieftains (''agha (title), agha'') during the Ottoman period, became discontent about certain aspects of Atatürk's Reforms, Atatürk's reforms aiming to modernise the country, such as secularism (the Sheikh Said rebellion, 1925) and land reform (the Dersim rebellion, 1937–1938), and staged armed revolts that were put down with military operations.
İsmet İnönü became Turkey's second President following Atatürk's death on 10 November 1938. On 29 June 1939, the Hatay State, Republic of Hatay voted in favour of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey Second Cairo Conference, remained neutral during most of World War II, but entered the closing stages of the war on the side of the Allies of World War II, Allies on 23 February 1945. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a United Nations Charter, charter member of the United Nations. In the following year, the One-party period of the Republic of Turkey, one-party period in Turkey came to an end, with the 1946 Turkish general election, first multi-party elections in 1946. In 1950 Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe
The Council of Europe (CoE; french: Conseil de l'Europe, ) is an international organisation founded in the wake of World War II to uphold European Convention on Human Rights, human rights, democracy and the Law in Europe, rule of law in Europe. ...
.
The Democrat Party (Turkey, 1946–1961), Democrat Party established by Celâl Bayar won the 1950 Turkish general election, 1950, 1954 Turkish general election, 1954 and 1957 Turkish general election, 1957 general elections and stayed in power for a decade, with Adnan Menderes as the Prime Minister and Bayar as the President. After fighting as part of the United Nations forces in the Korean War
, date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean. Turkey subsequently became a founding member of the OECD
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; french: Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, ''OCDE'') is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate e ...
in 1961, and an associate member of the EEC
The European Economic Community (EEC) was a regional organization created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957,Today the largely rewritten treaty continues in force as the ''Treaty on the functioning of the European Union'', as renamed by the Lisb ...
in 1963.
The country's tumultuous transition to Multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey, multi-party democracy was interrupted by military coup d'état, coups d'état in 1960 Turkish coup d'état, 1960 and 1980 Turkish coup d'état, 1980, as well as by military memorandums in 1971 Turkish coup d'état, 1971 and 1997 military memorandum (Turkey), 1997. Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal. Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993.
Following a decade of Cypriot intercommunal violence and the 1974 Cypriot coup d'état, coup in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 staged by the EOKA B paramilitary organisation, which overthrew President Makarios III, Makarios and installed the pro-Enosis (union with Greece) Nikos Sampson as dictator, Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Turkey invaded Cyprus on 20 July 1974 by unilaterally exercising Article IV in the Treaty of Guarantee (1960), but without restoring the status quo ante bellum, status quo ante at the end of the military operation. In 1983 the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is recognised only by Turkey, was established. The Annan Plan for Cyprus, Annan Plan for reunifying the island was supported by the majority of Turkish Cypriots, but rejected by the majority of Greek Cypriots, in separate 2004 Cypriot Annan Plan referendums, referendums in 2004. However, negotiations for solving the Cyprus dispute are still ongoing between Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot political leaders.
The Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present), conflict between Turkey and the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) (designated a list of designated terrorist groups, terrorist organisation by Turkey, the United States, and the European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
) has been active since 1984, primarily in the southeast of the country. More than 40,000 people have died as a result of the conflict. In 1999 PKK's founder Abdullah Öcalan was arrested and sentenced for terrorism and treason charges. In the past, various Kurdish people, Kurdish groups have unsuccessfully sought ethnic separatism, separation from Turkey to create an independent Kurdistan, Kurdish state, while others have more recently pursued provincial autonomy and greater Human rights of Kurdish people in Turkey, political and cultural rights for Kurds in Turkey. In the 21st century some reforms have taken place to improve the cultural rights of ethnic minorities in Turkey, such as the establishment of TRT Kurdî, TRT Arabi and TRT Avaz by the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, TRT.
Since the liberalisation of the Turkish economy in the 1980s, the country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability. Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the EU Customs Union
The European Union Customs Union (EUCU), formally known as the Community Customs Union, is a customs union which consists of all the member states of the European Union (EU), Monaco, and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekel ...
in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
in 2005. In a non-binding vote on 13 March 2019, the European Parliament called on the EU governments to suspend EU accession talks with Turkey, citing violations of human rights and the rule of law; but the negotiations, effectively on hold since 2018, remain active as of 2020.
In 2013, 2013 protests in Turkey, widespread protests erupted in many Turkish provinces, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government dissent. In August 2014, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan won Turkey's first direct presidential 2014 Turkish presidential election, election. On 15 July 2016, an 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government. As a reaction to the failed coup d'état, the government carried out 2016–17 Turkish purges, mass purges, jailed journalists, and shut down media outlets. In April 2017, the constitutional amendments, which significantly increased the powers of Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, were narrowly accepted in the 2017 Turkish constitutional referendum, constitutional referendum. In June 2018, President Erdogan was re-elected for a new five-year term in the first round of the 2018 Turkish presidential election, presidential election. His AK Party (AKP) secured a majority in the separate 2018 Turkish parliamentary election, parliamentary election.
Administrative divisions
Turkey has a unitary
Unitary may refer to:
Mathematics
* Unitary divisor
* Unitary element
* Unitary group
* Unitary matrix
* Unitary morphism
* Unitary operator
* Unitary transformation
* Unitary representation
* Unitarity (physics)
* ''E''-unitary inverse semigroup ...
structure in terms of administration and this aspect is one of the most important factors shaping the Turkish public administration. Turkey does not have a federalism, federal system, and the provinces are subordinate to the central government in Ankara
Ankara ( , ; ), historically known as Ancyra and Angora, is the capital of Turkey. Located in the central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of 5.1 million in its urban center and over 5.7 million in Ankara Province, maki ...
.
When three powers (executive, legislative and judiciary) are taken into account as the main functions of the state, local administrations have little power. Local administrations were established to provide services in place and the government is represented by the province governors (''vali'') and town governors (''kaymakam'').
Other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government, except for the mayors (''belediye başkanı'') who are elected by the constituents. Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies (''belediye meclisi'') for decision-making on municipal issues.
Within this unitary framework, Turkey is subdivided into 81 Provinces of Turkey, provinces (''il'' or ''vilayet'') for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into Districts of Turkey, districts (''ilçe''), for a total of 973 districts. Turkey is also subdivided into 7 Geographical regions of Turkey, regions (''bölge'') and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic purposes; this does not refer to an administrative division.
Government and politics
Turkey is a presidential system, presidential republic within a Multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey, multi-party system. The Constitution of Turkey, current constitution was approved by 1982 Turkish constitutional referendum, referendum in 1982, which determines the government's structure, lays forth the ideals and standards of the state's conduct, and sets out the state's responsibility to its citizens. Furthermore, the constitution specifies the people's rights and obligations, as well as principles for the delegation and exercise of sovereignty that belongs to the people of Turkey.
In the Turkish Unitary state, unitary system, citizens are subject to Administrative divisions of Turkey, three levels of government: national, provincial, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between municipal corporation, municipal governments and Districts of Turkey, districts, in which executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality voting system, plurality vote of citizens by district. Turkey is subdivided into Provinces of Turkey, 81 provinces for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts, for a total of List of districts in Turkey, 973 districts.
The government, regulated by a system of separation of powers as defined by the constitution of Turkey, comprises three branches:
* Legislature, Legislative: The unicameralism, unicameral Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Parliament makes law, debates and adopts the budget bills, declaration of war, declares war, approves treaties, proclaims amnesty and pardon, and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.
* Executive (government), Executive: President of Turkey, The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto bill (law), legislative bills before they become law (subject to parliamentary override), can issue Decree, presidential decrees on matters regarding executive power with exception of fundamental rights, individual rights and certain political rights (parliamentary laws prevail presidential decrees), and appoints the Cabinet of Turkey, members of the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce national laws and policies.
* Judiciary, Judicial: The Constitutional Court of Turkey, Constitutional Court (for constitutionality, constitutional adjudication and review of individual applications concerning human rights), the Court of Cassation of Turkey, Court of Cassation (final decision maker in ordinary judiciary), the Turkish Council of State, Council of State (final decision maker in administrative judiciary) and the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes (for resolving the disputes between courts for constitutional jurisdiction) are the four organizations that are described by the Constitution as supreme courts. The judges of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the president and the parliament.
The Parliament has 600 voting members, each representing a constituency for a five-year term. Parliamentary seats are distributed among the provinces by population, conform with the census apportionment. The president is Turkish presidential elections, elected by direct vote and serves a five-year term. The president can't run for re-elections after two terms of five-years, unless parliament prematurely renews the presidential elections during the second term of the President. Elections for the Parliament and presidential elections are held on the same day. The Constitutional Court is composed of fifteen members. A member is elected for a term of twelve years and can't be reelected. The members of the Constitutional Court are obliged to retire when they are over the age of sixty-five.
Parties and elections
Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of Government of Turkey, government: Turkish presidential elections, presidential elections (national), Grand National Assembly of Turkey, parliamentary elections (national), Metropolitan municipalities in Turkey, municipality mayors (local), List of districts in Turkey, district mayors (local), Provinces of Turkey, provincial or List of municipalities in Turkey, municipal council members (local) and Muhtar (title), muhtars (local). Apart from elections, referendums are also held occasionally.
Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the Suffrage, right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934 and before most countries. In Turkey, Voter turnout, turnout rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80 percent. There are 600 Member of Parliament, members of parliament who are elected for a five-year term by a party-list proportional representation system from 88 electoral districts.
The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of List of political parties in Turkey, political parties that it deems secularism in Turkey, anti-secular or having ties to Terrorism in Turkey, terrorism, or ban their existence altogether. The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes. Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an Political alliance, alliance with other parties, in which it is sufficient that the total votes of the alliance passes 7%. Independent politician, Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold.
After World War II, Turkey operated under a Multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey, multi-party system. On the right side of the Turkish political spectrum, parties like Democratic Party (Turkey, historical), Democrat Party (DP), Justice Party (Turkey), Justice Party (AP), Motherland Party (Turkey), Motherland Party (ANAP) and Justice and Development Party (Turkey), Justice and Development Party (AKP) once became the largest political party in Turkey. Turkish Right-wing politics, right-wing parties are more likely to embrace principles of political ideologies such as conservatism, nationalism or Islamism. On the left side of the spectrum, parties like Republican People's Party (CHP), Social Democratic Populist Party (Turkey), Social Democratic Populist Party (SHP) and Democratic Left Party (Turkey), Democratic Left Party (DSP) once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing politics, Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace principles of socialism, Kemalism or secularism.
The 12th President of Turkey, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (born 26 February 1954) is a Turkish politician serving as the List of presidents of Turkey, 12th and current president of Turkey since 2014. He previously served as prime minister of Turkey from 2003 to 2014 and as Lis ...
, the winner of the 2018 Turkish presidential election, 2018 presidential election and former Prime Minister of Turkey, prime minister, is currently serving as the head of state and head of government. Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu is the List of the main opposition leaders of Turkey, main opposition leader of Turkey. Mustafa Şentop is the Speaker of the Grand National Assembly.
The 27th Parliament of Turkey was installed following the 2018 Turkish parliamentary election, 2018 parliamentary election, with the starting composition of 295 seats for the Justice and Development Party (Turkey), Justice and Development Party (AKP), 146 seats for the Republican People's Party (CHP), 67 seats for the Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey), Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP), 49 seats for the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) and 49 seats for the Good Party (İP). The next parliamentary election is scheduled to take place in 2023.
Law
With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a Civil law (legal system), civil law legal system, replacing Sharia-derived Ottoman law. The Turkish civil code (1926), Civil Code, adopted in 1926, was based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code, originally based on the Italian law codes#Penal Code, Italian Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the German Penal Code and German law generally. Administrative law is based on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems. Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.
Turkey has adopted the principle of the separation of powers. In line with this principle, judicial power is exercised by independent courts on behalf of the Turkish nation. The independence and organisation of the courts, the security of the tenure of judges and public prosecutors, the profession of judges and prosecutors, the supervision of judges and public prosecutors, the military courts and their organisation, and the powers and duties of the high courts are regulated by the Turkish Constitution.
According to Article 142 of the Turkish Constitution, the organisation, duties and jurisdiction of the courts, their functions and the trial procedures are regulated by law. In line with the aforementioned article of the Turkish Constitution and related laws, the court system in Turkey can be classified under three main categories; which are the Judicial Courts, Administrative Courts, and Military Courts. Each category includes first instance courts and high courts. In addition, the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases that cannot be classified readily as falling within the purview of one court system.
Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior (Turkey), Ministry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the General Directorate of Security (Turkey), General Directorate of Security, the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command (Turkey), Coast Guard Command. Furthermore, there are other law enforcement agencies with specific (National Intelligence Organization (Turkey), National Intelligence Organization, General Directorate of Customs Protection, etc.) or local (Village guards, Municipal Police, etc.) assignments that are under the jurisdiction of the president or different ministries.
In the years of government by the AKP and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey; due to political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors, and in their pursuit of public duty. The ''Turkey 2015 report'' of the European Commission stated that "the independence of the judiciary and respect of the principle of separation of powers have been undermined and judges and prosecutors have been under strong political pressure."
Foreign relations
Turkey is a founding member of the Turkey and the United Nations, United Nations (1945), the OECD (1961), the OIC (1969), the OSCE
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's largest regional security-oriented intergovernmental organization with observer status at the United Nations. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, prom ...
(1973), the Economic Cooperation Organization, ECO (1985), the BSEC
The Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) is a regional international organization focusing on multilateral political and economic initiatives aimed at fostering cooperation, peace, stability and prosperity in the Black Sea ...
(1992), the Developing 8 Countries, D-8 (1997) and the G20
The G20 or Group of Twenty is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 countries and the European Union (EU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international financial stability, climate change mitigation, ...
(1999). Turkey was a member of the United Nations Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955, 1961 and 2009–2010. In 2012 Turkey became a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, SCO, and in 2013 became a member of the Asia Cooperation Dialogue, ACD.
In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe have always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey became one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950, applied for associate membership of the EEC (predecessor of the European Union) in 1959 and became an associate member in 1963. After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate member of the Western European Union in 1992, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the EU since 2005. Turkey's support for Northern Cyprus in the Cyprus dispute complicates Turkey's relations with the EU and remains a major stumbling block to the country's EU accession bid.
The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign policy was the country's long-standing strategic alliance with the United States. The Truman Doctrine in 1947 enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece during the Cold War, and resulted in large-scale Turkey-United States relations, U.S. military and economic support. In 1948 both countries were included in the Marshall Plan and the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, OEEC for rebuilding European economies. The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey's membership of NATO in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with the US. Subsequently, Turkey benefited from the United States' political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the European Union. In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans.
The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common cultural and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia, thus enabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas pipeline transport, pipeline from Baku in Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (, ; az, Azərbaycan ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, , also sometimes officially called the Azerbaijan Republic is a transcontinental country located at the boundary of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is a part of th ...
to the port of Ceyhan in Turkey. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit from the Caspian Sea basin to Europe. However, in 1993, Turkey sealed its land border with Armenia in a gesture of support to Azerbaijan (a Turkic state in the Caucasus region) during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, and it remains closed. Armenia and Turkey started diplomatic talks in order to normalise the relationship between the two countries. The discussions include opening the closed borders and starting trade. Turkey and Armenia have also restarted commercial flights between the two countries.
Under the AKP government, Turkey's influence has grown in the formerly Ottoman territories of the Middle East and the Balkans, based on the "strategic depth" doctrine (a terminology that was coined by Ahmet Davutoğlu for defining Turkey's increased engagement in regional foreign policy issues), also called Neo-Ottomanism. Following the Arab Spring in December 2010, the choices made by the AKP government for supporting certain political opposition groups in the affected countries have led to tensions with some Arab states, such as Turkey's neighbour Syria since the start of the Syrian civil war, and Egypt after the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, ousting of President Mohamed Morsi.
, Turkey does not have an ambassador in either Syria or Egypt. Diplomatic relations with Israel were also severed after the Gaza flotilla raid in 2010, but were normalised following a deal in June 2016. These political rifts have left Turkey with few allies in the Levant, East Mediterranean, where rich natural gas fields have recently been discovered; in sharp contrast with the original goals that were set by the former Foreign Minister (later Prime Minister) Ahmet Davutoğlu in his "zero problems with neighbours" foreign policy doctrine. In 2015, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar formed a "strategic alliance" against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. However, following the Russia–Turkey relations#Normalisation of ties, rapprochement with Russia in 2016, Turkey revised its stance regarding the solution of the conflict in Syria. In January 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces, including the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army, Free Syrian Army and Ahrar al-Sham, began an Turkish military operation in Afrin, intervention in Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed People's Protection Units, YPG from the enclave of Afrin, Syria, Afrin. There is a dispute over Turkey's Aegean dispute, maritime boundaries with Greece and Cyprus–Turkey maritime zones dispute, Cyprus and drilling rights in the eastern Mediterranean.
Military
The Turkish Armed Forces consist of the General Staff of the Turkish Armed Forces, General Staff, the Turkish Land Forces, Land Forces, the Turkish Naval Forces, Naval Forces and the Turkish Air Force, Air Force. The Chief of the Turkish General Staff, Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the President. President is responsible to the Parliament for matters of national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the country. However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the Parliament.
The Turkish Gendarmerie, Gendarmerie General Command and the Turkish Coast Guard, Coast Guard Command are law enforcement agencies with military organization (ranks, structure, etc.) and under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior (Turkey), Ministry of the Interior. In wartime, the President of Turkey, president can order certain units of the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command to operate under the Land Forces Command and Naval Forces Commands respectively. The remaining parts of the Gendarmerie and the Coast Guard continue to carry out their law enforcement missions under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior.
Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to Conscription in Turkey, serve in the military for a period ranging from three weeks to a year, dependent on education and job location. Turkey does not recognise conscientious objector, conscientious objection and does not offer a alternative civilian service, civilian alternative to military service.
Turkey has the Member states of NATO#Military personnel, second-largest standing military force in NATO, after the United States Armed Forces, United States, with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022. Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany and weapons of mass destruction, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands and weapons of mass destruction, Netherlands. A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict, but their use requires the approval of NATO.
Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATO Turkish Brigade, since the Korean War, including peacekeeping missions in United Nations Operation in Somalia I, Somalia, United Nations Protection Force, Yugoslavia and the Operation Ocean Shield, Horn of Africa. It supported Coalition of the Gulf War, coalition forces in the First Gulf War, contributed military personnel to the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, and remains active in Kosovo Force, Eurocorps and EU Battlegroups. In recent years, Turkey has assisted Peshmerga forces in northern Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
and the Somali Armed Forces with security and training. Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad, with List of countries with overseas military bases, military bases in Pasha Liman Base, Albania, Iraq–Turkey relations#Turkish military presence in Iraq, Iraq, Qatar–Turkey relations#Turkish military presence in Qatar, Qatar, and Camp TURKSOM, Somalia. The country also maintains a force of Turkish military forces in Northern Cyprus, 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus since 1974.
Human rights
The Human rights in Turkey, human rights record of Turkey has been the subject of much controversy and international condemnation. Between 1959 and 2011 the European Court of Human Rights made more than 2400 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations on issues such as Human rights of Kurdish people in Turkey, Kurdish rights, women in Turkey, women's rights, LGBT rights in Turkey, LGBT rights, and media of Turkey, media freedom. Turkey's human rights record continues to be a significant obstacle to the country's Accession of Turkey to the European Union, membership of the EU.
In the latter half of the 1970s, Turkey suffered from political violence in Turkey (1976–1980), political violence between far-left politics, far-left and far-right politics, far-right militant groups, which culminated in the 1980 Turkish coup d'état, military coup of 1980. The Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK, designated a list of designated terrorist groups, terrorist organisation by Turkey, the United States, and the European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
) was founded in 1978 by a group of Kurdish militants led by Abdullah Öcalan, seeking the foundation of an independent Kurdish state based on socialist state, Marxist-Leninist ideology. The initial reason given by the PKK for this was the oppression of Kurds in Turkey. Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present), A full-scale insurgency began 1984 PKK attacks, in 1984, when the PKK announced a Kurdish uprising. With time the PKK modified its demands into equal rights for ethnic Kurds and provincial autonomy within Turkey. Since 1980, the Turkish parliament stripped its members of Parliamentary immunity, immunity from prosecution, including 44 deputies most of which from the pro-Kurdish parties.
On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of Parliamentary immunity, immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey), HDP and the main opposition Republican People's Party, CHP party. By 2020, under the pretext of responding to a failed coup attempt in 2016, authorities had arrested or imprisoned more than 90,000 Turkish citizens. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, the Justice and Development Party (Turkey), AKP government has waged crackdowns on media freedom in Turkey, media freedom. Many List of arrested journalists in Turkey, journalists have been arrested using charges of "terrorism" and "anti-state activities". In 2020, the CPJ identified 18 jailed journalists in Turkey (including the editorial staff of ''Cumhuriyet'', Turkey's oldest newspaper still in circulation).
LGBT rights
Homosexual activity is legal in Turkey since 1858. LGBT people have had the right to seek asylum in Turkey under the Geneva Convention since 1951. However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence from their relatives, neighbors, etc. The Turkish authorities have carried out many discriminatory practices. Despite these, LGBT acceptance in Turkey is growing. In a survey conducted by Kadir Has University in Istanbul in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey by Kadir Has University in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbour decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019. A poll by Ipsos in 2015 found that 27% of the Turkish public was in favour of legalizing same-sex marriage and 19% supported civil unions instead.
Istanbul Pride was held for the first time in 2003. Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march. Since 2015, parades in Istanbul
Istanbul ( , ; tr, İstanbul ), formerly known as Constantinople ( grc-gre, Κωνσταντινούπολις; la, Constantinopolis), is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, serving as the country's economic, ...
have been denied permission by the government. The denials were based on security concerns, but critics claimed the bans were ideological. Despite the refusal, hundreds of people defied the ban each year.
Geography
Turkey is a transcontinental country bridging Southeastern Europe and Western Asia
Western Asia, West Asia, or Southwest Asia, is the westernmost subregion of the larger geographical region of Asia, as defined by some academics, UN bodies and other institutions. It is almost entirely a part of the Middle East, and includes Ana ...
. Asian Turkey, which includes 97 percent of the country's territory, is separated from East Thrace, European Turkey by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles. European Turkey comprises only 3 percent of the country's territory. Turkey covers an area of , of which is in Asia and is in Europe. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey also contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwest.
Turkey is divided into seven geographical regions: Marmara Region, Turkey, Marmara, Aegean Region, Turkey, Aegean, Black Sea Region, Turkey, Black Sea, Central Anatolia Region, Turkey, Central Anatolia, East Anatolia Region, Turkey, Eastern Anatolia, South Eastern Anatolia Region, Turkey, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean Sea Region, Turkey, Mediterranean. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey's total land area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.
Pamukkale terraces are made of travertine, a sedimentary rock deposited by mineral water from the hot springs. The area is famous for a carbonate mineral left by the flowing of thermal spring water. It is located in Turkey's Inner Aegean region, in the River Menderes valley, which has a temperate climate for most of the year. It was added as a List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey, UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988 with Hierapolis.
East Thrace; the European portion of Turkey, is located at the easternmost edge the Balkans. It forms the border between Turkey and its neighbours Greece and Bulgaria. The Asian part of the country mostly consists of the peninsula of Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
, which consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between the Köroğlu Mountains, Köroğlu and Pontic Mountains, Pontic mountain ranges to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south.
The Eastern Anatolia Region mostly corresponds to the western part of the Armenian Highlands (the plateau situated between the Anatolian Plateau in the west and the Lesser Caucasus in the north) and contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at , and Lake Van, the largest lake in the country. Eastern Turkey has a mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras River, Aras. The Southeastern Anatolia Region includes the northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia.
Far from the coast the climate of Turkey tends to be Continental climate, continental but elsewhere Temperate climate, temperate, and has Climate change in Turkey, become hotter, and Malatya Plain, drier in parts. There are Wildlife of Turkey, many species of plants and animals.
Biodiversity
Turkey's extraordinary ecosystem and habitat diversity has produced considerable species diversity. Anatolia is the homeland of many plants that have been cultivated for food since the advent of agriculture, and the wild ancestors of many plants that now provide staples for humankind still grow in Turkey. The diversity of Fauna of Turkey, Turkey's fauna is even greater than that of Flora and vegetation of Turkey, its flora. The number of animal species in the whole of Europe is around 60,000, while in Turkey there are over 80,000 (over 100,000 counting the subspecies).
The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper. The narrow coastal strip between the Pontic Mountains and the Black Sea is home to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain some of the world's few temperate rainforests. The Pinus brutia, Turkish pine (''Pinus brutia'') is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries; the other commonly found species of the genus pine, ''Pinus'' (pine) in Turkey include the ''Pinus nigra, nigra'', ''Pinus sylvestris, sylvestris'', ''Pinus pinea, pinea'' and ''Pinus halepensis, halepensis''. The Quercus cerris, Turkey oak (''Quercus cerris'') and numerous other species of the genus oak, ''Quercus'' (oak) exist in Turkey. The most commonly found species of the genus Platanus, ''Platanus'' (plane) is the ''Platanus orientalis, orientalis''. Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first Tulip#Introduction to Western Europe, introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
There are List of national parks of Turkey, 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Troy, Ancient Troy National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park. In the 21st century, threats to biodiversity include desertification due to climate change in Turkey.
The Anatolian leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.[Can, O.E. (2004). ]
Status, conservation and management of large carnivores in Turkey
'. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Standing Committee, 24th meeting, 29 November-3 December 2004, Strasbourg. The Eurasian lynx and the European wildcat are other Felidae, felid species which are currently found in the forests of Turkey. The Caspian tiger, now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century.[Üstay, A.H. (1990). ''Hunting in Turkey''. BBA, Istanbul.]
Renowned domestic animals from Ankara
Ankara ( , ; ), historically known as Ancyra and Angora, is the capital of Turkey. Located in the central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of 5.1 million in its urban center and over 5.7 million in Ankara Province, maki ...
, the capital of Turkey, include the Turkish Angora, Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat; and from Van Province the Turkish Van, Van cat. The national dog breeds are the Kangal Shepherd Dog, Kangal (Anatolian Shepherd), Aksaray Malaklisi dog, Malaklı and Akbash Dog, Akbaş.
Climate
The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean Sea, Aegean and Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the ea ...
s have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters. The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
have a temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters. The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation (meteorology), precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year. The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages annually which is the highest precipitation in the country. The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters. Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but usually melts in no more than a few days. However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea. Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 °C to −40 °C (−22 °F to −40 °F) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below −20 °C ( -4 °F) with the mountains being even colder.
Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian plateau of the interior of Turkey a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.
Economy
Turkey is a newly industrialized country
The category of newly industrialized country (NIC), newly industrialized economy (NIE) or middle income country is a socioeconomic classification applied to several countries around the world by political scientists and economists. They represent ...
, with an upper-middle income economy, which is the twentieth-largest in the world by nominal GDP, and the eleventh-largest by PPP. Turkey is one of the Emerging 7 countries. According to World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. The World Bank is the collective name for the Interna ...
estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $38,759 in 2022 and approximately 11.7% of Turks are at risk of poverty or social exclusion as of 2019. Unemployment in Turkey was 13.6% in 2019, and the middle class population in Turkey rose from 18% to 41% of the population between 1993 and 2010 according to the World Bank. , the foreign currency reserves of the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey, Turkish Central Bank were $74.9 billion (an 8.1% increase compared to the previous month), its gold reserves were $38.5 billion (a 5.1% decrease compared to the previous month), while its official reserve assets stood at $121.3 billion. , the foreign currency deposits of the citizens and residents in List of banks in Turkey, Turkish banks stood at $234 billion, equivalent to around half of all deposits. The European Union – Turkey Customs Union, EU–Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to an extensive liberalisation of tariff rates, and forms one of the most important pillars of Turkey's foreign trade policy.
The automotive industry in Turkey is sizeable, and produced over 1.3 million motor vehicles in 2021, ranking as the List of countries by motor vehicle production, 13th largest producer in the world. Turkish automotive companies like TEMSA, Otokar and BMC (Turkey), BMC are among the world's largest van, bus and truck manufacturers. Togg, or Turkey's Automobile Joint Venture Group Inc. is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey. Turkish shipyards are highly regarded both for the production of chemical and oil tankers up to 10,000 Deadweight tonnage, dwt and also for their mega yachts. Turkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe, and invest a substantial amount of funds for research and development in new technologies related to these fields.
Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are list of banks in Turkey, banking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, oil refining, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, and machine industry. In 2004, it was estimated that 46 percent of total disposable income was received by the top 20 percent of income earners, while the lowest 20 percent received only 6 percent.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Turkey reached 22.05 billion USD in 2007 and 19.26 billion USD in 2015, but has declined in recent years. In 2020 the International Energy Agency said that Energy subsidy#Turkey, fossil fuel subsidies should be redirected, for example to the health in Turkey, health system. Fossil fuel subsidies were around 0.2% of GDP for the first two decades of the 21st century, and are higher than clean energy subsidies. The external costs of fossil fuel consumption in 2018 has been estimated as 1.5% of GDP. In 2020 the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development offered to support a just transition away from coal. Increasing the share of renewable energy could reduce inflation.
Turkey has seen a growth in the video gaming industry in recent years. Numerous game developing companies have been established and gained investment from venture capitalists. TaleWorlds Entertainment, Peak Games, Bigger Games and Dream Games are the current leaders in this sector.
Tourism
Tourism in Turkey has increased almost every year in the 21st century, and is an important part of the economy. The Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism currently promotes Turkish tourism under the project Turkey Home. Turkey is one of the world's top ten destination countries, with the highest percentage of foreign visitors arriving from Europe; specially Germany and Russia in recent years.[ In 2019, Turkey World Tourism rankings#Most visited destinations by international tourist arrivals, ranked sixth in the world in terms of the number of international tourist arrivals behind Italy, with 51.2 million foreign tourists visiting the country.] Turkey has List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey, 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey (Tentative list), 84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list. Turkey is home to 519 Blue Flag beaches, which makes it in the third place in the world. Istanbul
Istanbul ( , ; tr, İstanbul ), formerly known as Constantinople ( grc-gre, Κωνσταντινούπολις; la, Constantinopolis), is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, serving as the country's economic, ...
is the tenth most visited city in the world with 13,433,000 annual visitors as of 2018. Antalya is the second most visited city in Turkey, with over 9 million tourists in 2021.
Infrastructure
In 2013 there were 98 List of airports in Turkey, airports in Turkey, including 22 international airports. Istanbul Airport is planned to be the largest airport in the world, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers a year. Turkish Airlines uses the Istanbul Airport, which has a current annual capacity of serving 90 million passengers, as its main hub. As well as Turkish Airlines, the flag carrier of Turkey since 1933, List of airlines of Turkey, several other airlines operate in the country. Turkish Airlines has scheduled services to 315 destinations in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, making it the Largest airlines in the world, largest Mainline (aeronautics), mainline carrier in the world Largest airlines in the world#By number of countries served, by number of countries served.
, the country has a roadway network of over . Motorways are controlled-access highways that are officially named Otoyol. The network spans 3,523 kilometres (2,189 mi) as of 2020. The network is expected to expand to 4,773 kilometres (2,966 mi) by 2023 and to 9,312 kilometres (5,786 mi) by 2035.
Opened in 2013, the Marmaray, Marmaray tunnel under the Bosphorus connects the railway and Istanbul Metro, metro lines of Istanbul's European and Asian sides; while the nearby Eurasia Tunnel (2016) provides an undersea road connection for motor vehicles.
Istanbul Metro is the largest metro network in the country with 495 million annual ridership. There are 9 metro lines under service and 6 more under construction.
The Bosphorus Bridge (1973), Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (1988) and Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge (2016) are the three suspension bridges connecting the European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul.
The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge (2022) on the Dardanelles strait, connecting Europe and Asia, is the List of longest suspension bridge spans#Bridges under construction, longest suspension bridge in the world. The Osman Gazi Bridge (2016) connects the northern and southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit.
Turkish State Railways operates both conventional and high speed trains on 12,532 kilometres rail length. The government-owned national railway company started building High-speed rail in Turkey, high-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya high-speed railway, Ankara-Konya line became operational in 2011, while the Ankara-Istanbul high-speed railway, Ankara-Istanbul line entered service in 2014. Konya-Karaman line started its operations in 2022 and 406 km (252 mi) long Ankara–Sivas high-speed railway, Ankara-Sivas line is to open in 2022.
Turkey consumes 1700 terawatt hours (TW/h) of primary energy per year, a little over 20 megawatt hours (MW/h) per person, mostly from imported fossil fuels. Although the energy policy of Turkey includes reducing fossil-fuel imports, coal in Turkey is the largest single reason why greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey amount to 1% of the global total. Renewable energy in Turkey is being increased and the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is being built on the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. However, despite the overcapacity in Electricity sector in Turkey, national electricity generation, Fossil fuel subsidies, fossil fuels are still subsidized.
Turkey has the fifth-highest direct utilisation and capacity of Geothermal power in Turkey, geothermal power in the world. As of 2019, Turkey produces 45.6% of its electricity from renewable sources.
Many natural gas in Turkey, natural gas pipelines span the country's territory. Blue Stream, a major trans-Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
gas pipeline, delivers natural gas from Russia to Turkey as does the undersea pipeline, Turkish Stream. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, the second longest oil pipeline in the world, was inaugurated in 2005.
As of 2022, almost all natural gas consumed in Turkey is imported, but production from the Sakarya Gas Field, a sweet gas field in the Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
discovered by TPAO in 2020, is due to start in 2023. TPAO estimates reserves over 500 bcm. A pipeline will connect the gas field to the Filyos Natural-gas Processing Plant, and TPAO plans to begin production in 2023, with an estimated peak production of 40 bcm in 2026.
Science and technology
Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing Science and technology in Turkey, science, technology and innovation policies in Turkey. Turkish Academy of Sciences, TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey. TAEK is the country's official nuclear technology, nuclear energy institution, focused on academic research and the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear technology. It is supervising the construction of Turkey's first nuclear facility, Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant in Mersin, at the cost of $20 billion; the plant is expected to be operational in May 2023, and is projected to meet around 10% of the country's electricity demand.
The Turkish government invests heavily in research and development of military technology, military technologies, including Turkish Aerospace Industries, ASELSAN, HAVELSAN, ROKETSAN, and Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation, MKE. Turkey is a global leader in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV); the Baykar Bayraktar TB2, Bayraktar TB2, manufactured by private defence company Baykar, has been exported to over a dozen countries and played a decisive role in several conflicts, including the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Turkey has made significant inroads in aerospace technology into the 21st century. In 2013, it initiated the Space Launch System (Turkey), Turkish Space Launch System (UFS) to develop an independent satellite launch capability, including the construction of a spaceport, the development of satellite launch vehicles, and the establishment of remote earth stations. Türksat (company), Türksat, the country's sole communications satellite operator, has launched a Turksat (satellite), series of satellites into orbit; likewise, the Turkish Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center (UMET)—a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of National Defence (Turkey), Ministry of National Defence and operated by the TAI—has launched the Göktürk-1, Göktürk series of Earth observation satellites for reconnaissance; BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the scientific Earth observation satellites operated by the TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute.
In 2015, Aziz Sancar, a Turkish professor at the University of North Carolina, won the Nobel Chemistry Prize, Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on how cells repair damaged DNA; he is one of List of Nobel laureates by country#Turkey, two Turkish Nobel laureates, and the first in the sciences. Other prominent Turkish scientists include physician Hulusi Behçet, who discovered Behçet's disease; mathematician Cahit Arf, who defined the Arf invariant; and immunologists Uğur Şahin and Özlem Türeci, whose German biotechnology company, BioNTech, developed RNA vaccine, one of the first efficacious vaccines against COVID-19.
Turkey is among the top fifty most innovative countries in the world, ranking 41st in the Global Innovation Index in 2021; this represents a considerable increase since 2011, where it was ranked 65th.
Demographics
According to the ''Address-Based Population Recording System'' of Turkey, the country's population was 74.7 million people in 2011, nearly three-quarters of whom lived in urban area, towns and cities. According to the 2011 estimate, the population is increasing by 1.35 percent each year. Turkey has an average population density of 97 people per km². People within the 15–64 age group constitute 67.4 percent of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 25.3 percent; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 7.3 percent.
Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk" as "anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship"; therefore, the legal use of the term "Turkish" as a citizenship, citizen of Turkey is different from the ethnic group, ethnic definition. However approximately 70 to 80 percent of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks. It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey. Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available, because Turkish census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity.
Kurds in Turkey, Kurds are the largest non-Turkish ethnicity at anywhere from 12–25 per cent of the population. The exact figure remains a subject of dispute; according to Servet Mutlu, "more often than not, these estimates reflect pro-Kurdish or pro-Turkish sympathies and attitudes rather than scientific facts or erudition". Mutlu's 1990 study estimated Kurds made up around 12 per cent of the population. The Kurds ug:كۇردلار
Kurds ( ku, کورد ,Kurd, italic=yes, rtl=yes) or Kurdish people are an Iranian ethnic group native to the mountainous region of Kurdistan in Western Asia, which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Ir ...
make up a majority in the provinces of Ağrı Province, Ağrı, Batman Province, Batman, Bingöl Province, Bingöl, Bitlis Province, Bitlis, Diyarbakır Province, Diyarbakır, Hakkari Province, Hakkari, Iğdır Province, Iğdır, Mardin Province, Mardin, Muş Province, Muş, Siirt Province, Siirt, Şırnak
Şırnak ( ku, شرنەخ, Şirnex) is a town in southeastern Turkey. It is the capital of Şırnak Province, a new province that split from the Mardin and Siirt provinces. The Habur border gate with Iraq which is one of Turkey's main links to Arab ...
, Tunceli Province, Tunceli and Van Province, Van; a near majority in Şanlıurfa Province (47%); and a large minority in Kars Province (20%). In addition, due to internal migration, Kurdish diaspora communities exist in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world. Non-Kurdish minorities are believed to make up an estimated 7–12 percent of the population.
The three "Millet (Ottoman Empire), Non-Muslim" minority groups recognised in the Treaty of Lausanne
The Treaty of Lausanne (french: Traité de Lausanne) was a peace treaty negotiated during the Lausanne Conference of 1922–23 and signed in the Palais de Rumine, Lausanne, Switzerland, on 24 July 1923. The treaty officially settled the conflic ...
were Armenians in Turkey, Armenians, Greeks in Turkey, Greeks and Jews in Turkey, Jews. Other ethnic groups include Albanians in Turkey, Albanians, Arabs in Turkey, Arabs, Assyrians in Turkey, Assyrians, Bosniaks in Turkey, Bosniaks, Circassians in Turkey, Circassians, Georgians in Turkey, Georgians, Laz people, Laz, Pomaks, and Romani people, Roma. Turkey is also home to a Muslim community of Megleno-Romanians.
Before the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million. As of April 2020, there are 3.6 million Refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey, Syrian refugees in Turkey, who are mostly Arabs but also include Syrian Kurds, Syrian Turkmen, and other ethnic groups of Syria. The vast majority of these are living in Turkey with temporary residence permits. The Turkish government has granted Turkish citizenship to refugees who have joined the Syrian National Army.
Immigration
Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the Gulf War in 1991. Immigration to Turkey is the process by which people human migration, migrate to Turkey to reside in the country. Turkey's migrant crisis in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants; by 2014, human migration, international migrants comprised 2.5% of the country's population. According to the UNHCR, in 2018 Turkey hosted 3,564,919 registered refugees from Africa and the Middle East in total, which corresponded to 63.4% of all refugees in the world. Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world, including 3.6 million Refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey, Syrian refugees, as of April 2020. The Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency manages the refugee crisis in Turkey.
Languages
The official language is Turkish language, Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic languages, Turkic language in the world. It is spoken by 85.54 percent of the population as a first language. 11.97 percent of the population speaks the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish languages, Kurdish as their mother tongue. Arabic language, Arabic and Zaza language, Zaza are the mother tongues of 2.39 percent of the population, and several other languages are the mother tongues of smaller parts of the population.
Endangered language, Endangered Languages of Turkey, languages in Turkey include Abaza language, Abaza, Abkhaz language, Abkhaz, Adyghe language, Adyghe, Cappadocian Greek, Gagauz language, Gagauz, Hértevin, Homshetsma, Kabard-Cherkes, Judaeo-Spanish, Ladino (Judesmo), Laz language, Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek, Romani language, Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh language, Ubykh, and Western Armenian. Megleno-Romanian language, Megleno-Romanian is also spoken.
Turkey is a founding member of the Organization of Turkic States and International Organization of Turkic Culture, comprising other independent Turkic states, such as Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (, ; az, Azərbaycan ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, , also sometimes officially called the Azerbaijan Republic is a transcontinental country located at the boundary of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is a part of th ...
, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. It is an intergovernmental organization whose overarching aim is promoting comprehensive cultural cooperation among Turkic-speaking states.
Religion
Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the Turkish Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience. A 2016 survey by Ipsos, interviewing 17,180 adults across 22 countries, found that Islam was the dominant religion in Turkey, adhered to by 82% of the total population; religiously unaffiliated people comprised 13% of the population, while 2% were Christianity, Christians. The level of religiosity study by Konda found that 9.7% of the population who are 'fully devoted', 52% who 'strives to fulfill religious obligations', 34.3% who 'does not fulfill religious obligations' and 3.2% 'Nonbeliever/Irreligious'. Another poll conducted by Gezici Araştırma in 2020 interviewed 1,062 people in 12 provinces and found that 28.5% of the Generation Z in Turkey identify as Irreligion in Turkey, irreligious.
According to a survey by World Values Survey In 2017 98.0% Identified as Muslims, while 1.2% Identified with no Religion and 0.8 as other.
According to a survey by the pollster KONDA, the percentage of atheists in Turkey has tripled in 10 years and rose from 1% in 2008 to 3% in 2018, the percentage of non-believers or agnostics rose from 1% to 2%, and that 90% of irreligious Turks were under 35 years old. The survey was conducted in Turkey through face-to-face interviews with 5,793 people in their households, in April, 2018 while in 2008 6,482 people were interviewed in face-to-face in Turkey.
The ''CIA World Factbook'' reports that Islam is the religion of 99.8% of the population, with Sunni Muslims as the largest sect, while 0.2% are Christians and Jews. However, there are no official governmental statistics specifying the religious beliefs of the Turkish people, nor is religious data recorded in the country's census. Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15 to 20 million, while the Alevi-Bektaşi Federation states that there are around 25 million. According to Aksiyon magazine, the number of Twelver Shia Islam, Shias (excluding Alevis) is three million (4.2%).
Christianity has a long history in present-day Turkey, which is the birthplace of numerous Christian Twelve apostles, apostles and saints. Antioch (Antakya) is regarded by tradition as the spot where the Gospels were written, and where the followers of Jesus were called Christians for the first time. Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
is generally considered to be the center and the "cradle of Orthodox Christian civilization". The percentage of Christians in Turkey fell from 17.5% (three million followers) in a population of 16 million to 2.5% percent in the early 20th century. mainly as a result of the Armenian genocide, the population exchange between Greece and Turkey and the Christian emigration, emigration of Christians that began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century. Today, there are more than 120,000–320,000 people of various Christian denominations, representing less than 0.2% of Turkey's population, including an estimated 80,000 Oriental Orthodox, 35,000 Catholic Church, Roman Catholics, 18,000 Antiochian Greeks, 5,000 Greek Orthodox Church, Greek Orthodox, smaller numbers of Protestantism, Protestants, and 512 Mormons. Currently, there are 398 churches open for worship in Turkey.
Modern-day Turkey continues to have a small Jewish population; with around 26,000 History of the Jews in Turkey, Jews, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi Jews, Sephardi. Turkey has Jewish population by country, the biggest Jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries.
In a mid-2010s poll, 2.9% of Turkish respondents identified as atheists. The Ateizm Derneği, Association of Atheism, the first official atheist organisation in the Balkans and the Middle East, was founded in 2014. Some religious and secular officials have claimed that atheism and deism are growing among Turkish people.
Education
The Ministry of National Education (Turkey), Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education. This is compulsory and lasts twelve years: four years each of primary school, middle school and high school. All 12 years compulsory education is free of charge in public schools.
Basic education in Turkey is said to lag behind other OECD countries, with significant differences between high and low performers. Access to high-quality school heavily depends on the performance in the secondary school entrance exams, to the point that some students begin taking private tutoring classes when they are ten years old.
As of 2022, there are 209 universities in Turkey. Except for the Open Education Faculties (AÖF) at Anadolu University, Anadolu, Istanbul University, Istanbul and Atatürk University; entrance is regulated by the national Student Selection and Placement System ( tr, Öğrenci Seçme ve Yerleştirme Sistemi, ÖSYS) examination, after which high school graduates are assigned to universities according to their performance. According to the 2012–2013 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical University, followed by Bilkent University and Koç University, Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University. All state and private universities are under the control of the Council of Higher Education (Turkey), Higher Education Board ( tr, Yükseköğretim Kurulu, YÖK), whose head is appointed by the President of Turkey; and since 2016 the President directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.
Turkey is a member of Socrates programme, Erasmus Programme and Erasmus+ Programmes. These student exchange programmes are organised by the European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
. Also it is a member of Erasmus Student Network which is a Europe-wide student organisation which has more than 15.000 volunteers across the Europe.
Turkey has become a hub for foreign students in recent years. The number of foreign students in Turkey was 795.962 in 2016. The government has announced a vision to draw around 500,000 foreign students at its universities by offering attractive scholarships. Türkiye Scholarships is international scholarship programme funded by Government of Turkey. In 2021, in response to Türkiye Scholarships, that was advertised in January 2021, Turkish Government received 165,000 applications from 178 countries of the World.
Health
The Ministry of Health (Turkey), Ministry of Health has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003. Known as Universal Health Insurance (), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%. Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures. Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%. The lower health care expenditure is due to lower median age in Turkey which is 32.4, compared to Italy which is 47.3. Aging population is the prime reason for higher healthcare expenditure in the developed world.
Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years. Turkey has high rates of obesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having a body mass index (BMI) value that is 30 or above. Air pollution in Turkey is a major cause of early death.
There are many private hospitals in the country. Turkey benefits from medical tourism in the recent years. Health tourism earns above $1 billion to Turkey in 2019. Some 60% of the income is obtained from plastic surgery and a total of 662,087 patients received service in the country last year within the scope of health tourism.
Culture
Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Turkic peoples, Turkic, Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
n, Byzantine culture, Byzantine, Culture of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman (which was itself a continuation of both Greco-Roman and Islamic culture, Islamic cultures) and Western culture and traditions, which started with the Tanzimat, Westernisation of the Ottoman Empire and still continues today. This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the peoples who were in their path during Turkic migration, their migration from Central Asia to the West. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values.
Turkish culture also influenced the European art and fashion particularly during the period of 16th to 18th centuries at the peak of Ottoman power. This phenomenan is also called Turquerie.
Visual arts
Ottoman miniature is linked to the Persian miniature tradition, as well as strong Chinese painting#Late imperial China (1368–1895), Chinese artistic influences. The words ''tasvir'' or ''nakış'' were used to define the art of miniature painting in Ottoman Turkish. The studios the artists worked in were called ''nakkaşhane''. The miniatures were usually not signed, perhaps because of the rejection of individualism, but also because the works were not created entirely by one person; the head painter designed the composition of the scene, and his apprentices drew the contours (which were called ''tahrir'') with black or coloured ink and then painted the miniature without creating an illusion of depth. The head painter, and much more often the scribe of the text, were indeed named and depicted in some of the manuscripts. The understanding of perspective was different from that of the nearby European Renaissance painting tradition, and the scene depicted often included different time periods and spaces in one picture. They followed closely the context of the book they were included in, more illustrations than standalone works of art. Nakkaş Osman and Matrakçı Nasuh (1480–1564) are among the most prominent artists of this era.
List of Turkish painters, Turkish painting, in the Western sense, developed actively starting from the mid 19th century. The first painting lessons were scheduled at what is now the Istanbul Technical University (then the ''Imperial Military Engineering School'') in 1793, mostly for technical purposes. In the late 19th century, human figure in the Western sense was being established in Turkish painting, especially with Osman Hamdi Bey (1842–1910). Impressionism, among the contemporary trends, appeared later on with Halil Pasha (painter), Halil Pasha (c.1857–1939). Other important Turkish painters in the 19th century were Ferik İbrahim Pasha, Ferik İbrahim Paşa (1815–1891), Osman Nuri Pasha (painter), Osman Nuri Paşa (c.1839–1906), Şeker Ahmet Paşa (1841–1907), and Hoca Ali Riza (1864–1939).
The young Turkish artists sent to Europe in 1926 came back inspired by contemporary trends such as Fauvism, Cubism and Expressionism, still very influential in Europe. The later "Group D" of artists led by Abidin Dino, Cemal Tollu, Fikret Mualla, Princess Fahrelnissa Zeid, Fahrünnisa Zeid, Bedri Rahmi Eyuboglu, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu, Adnan Coker, Adnan Çoker and Burhan Doğançay introduced some trends that had lasted in the West for more than three decades.
Other important movements in Turkish painting were the "Yeniler Grubu" (The Newcomers Group) of the late 1930s; the "On'lar Grubu" (Group of Ten) of the 1940s; the "Yeni Dal Grubu" (New Branch Group) of the 1950s; and the "Siyah Kalem Grubu" (Black Pen Group) of the 1960s.
Internationally acclaimed List of Turkish artists, Turkish sculptors in the 20th century include Ali Hadi Bara, Zühtü Müridoğlu, İlhan Koman, Kuzgun Acar and Ali Teoman Germaner.
Turkish carpet, Carpet (''halı'') and kilim, tapestry (''kilim'') weaving is a traditional Turkish art form with roots in pre-Islamic times. During its long history, the art and craft of weaving carpets and tapestries in Turkey has integrated numerous cultural traditions. Apart from the Turkic peoples, Turkic design patterns that are prevalent, traces of Persian carpet, Persian and Byzantine silk#Tapestry and embroidery, Byzantine patterns can also be detected. There are also similarities with the patterns used in Armenian, Caucasian and Kurdish carpet designs. The arrival of Islam in Central Asia and the development of Islamic art also influenced Turkic patterns in the medieval period. The history of the designs, motifs and ornaments used in Turkish carpets and tapestries thus reflects the political and ethnic history of the Turks and the cultural diversity of Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
. However, scientific attempts were unsuccessful, as yet, to attribute a particular design to a specific ethnic, regional, or even nomadic versus village tradition.
The earliest examples of Turkish paper marbling, called ''Paper marbling, ebru'' in Turkish, are said to be a copy of the ''Hâlnâme'' by the poet Arifî. The text of this manuscript was rendered in a delicate cut paper découpage calligraphy by Mehmed bin Gazanfer and completed in 1540, and features many marbled and decorative paper borders. One early master by the pseudonym of ''Şebek'' is mentioned posthumously in the earliest Ottoman text on the art known as the ''Tertib-i Risâle-i Ebrî'', which is dated based on internal evidence to after 1615. The instructions for several ''ebru'' techniques in the text are accredited to this master. Another famous 18th-century master by the name of Hatip Mehmed Efendi (died 1773) is accredited with developing motifs and perhaps early floral designs, although evidence from India appears to contradict some of these reports. Despite this, marbled motifs are commonly referred to as ''hatip'' designs in Turkey today.
Literature and theatre
Turkish literature is a mix of cultural influences. Interaction between the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts. Turkish literature was heavily influenced by Persian literature, Persian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era.
The Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century introduced previously unknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel ''İntibâh'' (Awakening), while the journalist İbrahim Şinasi, Şinasi has written, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the One act play, one-act comedy "''Şair Evlenmesi''" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period: the ''Edebiyat-ı Cedîde'' (New Literature) movement; the ''Fecr-i Âtî'' (Dawn of the Future) movement; and the ''Millî Edebiyat'' (National Literature) movement.
The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet Ran, Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the free verse style. Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip movement led by Orhan Veli Kanık, Orhan Veli, Oktay Rıfat Horozcu, Oktay Rıfat and Melih Cevdet Anday, Melih Cevdet. The mix of cultural influences in Turkey is dramatised, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the novels of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.
The origin of Turkish theatre dates back to ancient pagan rituals and oral legends. The dances, music and songs performed during the rituals of the inhabitants of Anatolia millennia ago are the elements from which the first shows originated. In time, the ancient rituals, myths, legends and stories evolved into theatrical shows. Starting from the 11th-century, the traditions of the Seljuk Turks blended with those of the indigenous peoples of Anatolia and the interaction between diverse cultures paved the way for new plays.
After the Tanzimat (Reformation) period in the 19th century, characters in Turkish theatre were modernised and plays were performed on European-style stages, with actors wearing European costumes. Following the Second Constitutional Era, restoration of constitutional monarchy with the Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire. The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to restore the Ottoman Constit ...
in 1908, theatrical activities increased and social problems began to be reflected at the theatre as well as in historical plays. A theatrical conservatoire, Darülbedayi, Darülbedayi-i Osmani (which became the nucleus of the Istanbul City Theatres) was established in 1914. During the years of chaos and war, the Darülbedayi-i Osmani continued its activities and attracted the younger generation. Numerous Turkish playwrights emerged in this era; some of them wrote on romantic subjects, while others were interested in social problems, and still others dealt with nationalistic themes. The first Turkish musicals were also written in this period. In time, Turkish women began to appear on stage, which was an important development in the late Ottoman society. Until then, female roles had only been played by actresses who were members of Turkey's ethnic minorities. Today there are numerous private theatres in the country, together with those which are subsidised by the government, such as the Turkish State Theatres.
Music and dance
Music of Turkey includes mainly Turkic culture, Turkic elements as well as partial influences ranging from Music of Central Asia, Central Asian folk music, Arabic music, Greek music, Ottoman music, Persian traditional music, Persian music and Music of Southeastern Europe, Balkan music, as well as references to more modern European and Music of the United States, American popular music. The roots of traditional music in Turkey span across centuries to a time when the Seljuk Turks migrated to Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
and Persia in the 11th century and contains elements of both Turkic and pre-Turkic influences. Much of its modern popular music can trace its roots to the emergence in the early 1930s drive for Westernization.[, pp. 396–410.]
With the assimilation of immigrants from various regions the diversity of musical genres and musical instrumentation also expanded. Turkey has also seen documented folk music and recorded popular music produced in the ethnic styles of Music of Greece, Greek, Music of Armenia, Armenian, Music of Albania, Albanian, Music of Poland, Polish and Jewish communities, among others.
Many Turkish cities and towns have vibrant local music scenes which, in turn, support a number of regional musical styles. Despite this however, western music styles like pop music and Kanto (music), kanto lost popularity to arabesque in the late 1970s and 1980s. It became popular again by the beginning of the 1990s, as a result of an opening economy and society. With the support of Sezen Aksu, the resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as Ajda Pekkan, Tarkan (singer), Tarkan, Levent Yüksel, Sertab Erener and Hande Yener. Internationally acclaimed Turkish jazz and blues musicians and composers include Ahmet Ertegun (founder and president of Atlantic Records), Nükhet Ruacan and Kerem Görsev.
The Turkish Five is a name used by some authors to identify the five pioneers of Western classical music in Turkey, namely Ahmed Adnan Saygun, Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Cemal Reşit Rey, Hasan Ferit Alnar and Necil Kazım Akses.[İlyasoğlu (1998), 14.] Internationally acclaimed Turkish musicians of Western classical music include pianists İdil Biret, Verda Erman, Gülsin Onay, the Pekinel sisters (Güher and Süher Pekinel), Ayşegül Sarıca and Fazıl Say; violinists Ayla Erduran and Suna Kan; opera singers Semiha Berksoy, Leyla Gencer and Güneş Gürle; and conductors Emre Aracı, Gürer Aykal, Erol Erdinç, Rengim Gökmen and Hikmet Şimşek.
Turkish dance, Turkish folk dance is diverse. ''Hora (dance), Hora'' is performed in East Thrace; ''Zeybek dance, Zeybek'' in the Aegean Region, Marmara Region, Southern Marmara and Central Anatolia Region, East-Central Anatolia Region; ''Teke'' in the Mediterranean Region, Western Mediterranean Region; ''Kaşık Oyunları'' and ''Karşılama'' in Central Anatolia Region, West-Central Anatolia, Black Sea Region, Western Black Sea Region, Marmara Region, Southern Marmara Region and Mediterranean Region, Eastern Mediterranean Region; ''Horon'' in the Black Sea Region, Central and Eastern Black Sea Region; ''Halay'' in Eastern Anatolia Region, Eastern Anatolia and the Central Anatolia Region; and ''Bar (dance), Bar'' and ''Lezginka'' in the Eastern Anatolia Region, Northeastern Anatolia Region.
Architecture
The Byzantine era is usually dated from 330 AD, when Constantine the Great moved the Roman capital to Byzantium, which became Constantinople, until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Its architecture dramatically influenced the later medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and became the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse. When the Roman Empire went Christian (as well as Eastwards) with its new capital at Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, its architecture became more sensuous and more ambitious. This new style would come to be known as Byzantine with increasingly exotic domes and ever-richer mosaics, traveled west to Ravenna and Venice and as far north as Moscow. This influence can be seen particularly in the Venetian Gothic architecture.
The Seljuk architecture, architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the Architecture of Central Asia, Turkic architecture of Central Asia with those of Persian architecture, Persian, Arab architecture, Arab, Armenian architecture, Armenian and Byzantine architecture, Byzantine architecture. The transition from Seljuk architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which was the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman State between 1335 and 1413. Following the Fall of Constantinople, Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman architecture was significantly influenced by Byzantine architecture. Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the most famous examples of classical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of the Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years. Mimar Sinan (c.1489–1588) was the most important architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. He was the chief architect of at least 374 buildings that were constructed in various eyalet, provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. Sedefkar Mehmed Agha also known as the architect of the Blue Mosque, Istanbul, Blue Mosque was an Albanian origin Devshirme. He became a pupil of architect Mimar Sinan, becoming his first assistant in charge of the office in the absence of Sinan. His work heavily influenced by his teacher Mimar Sinan
Since the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by European styles, and this can be particularly seen in the Tanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the Dolmabahçe Palace, Dolmabahçe, Çırağan Palace, Çırağan, Taksim Military Barracks (demolished), Feriye Sarayları, Feriye, Beylerbeyi Palace, Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu Palace, Küçüksu, Ihlamur Palace, Ihlamur and Yıldız Palace, Yıldız palaces, which were all designed by members of the Balyan family of Ottoman Armenian court architects. The Ottoman era yalı, waterfront houses (''yalı'') on the Bosphorus also reflect the fusion between classical Ottoman and European architectural styles during the aforementioned period. Italian architect, Raimondo D'Aronco served as the chief palace architect to the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II in Istanbul for 16 years. D'Aronco designed and built a large number of buildings of various types in Istanbul. The stylistic features of his works can be classified in three groups: Revivalism, reinterpretation of the Ottoman forms, Art Nouveau and Vienna Secession. Art Nouveau was first introduced to Istanbul by D'Aronco, and his designs reveal that he drew freely on Byzantine and Ottoman decorations. He also mixed Western and Oriental styles in his work.
The First National Architectural Movement in the early 20th century sought to create a new architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. The leading architects of this movement were Vedat Tek (1873–1942), Mimar Kemaleddin Bey (1870–1927), Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–1982) and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953). Buildings from this era are the Istanbul Main Post Office, Grand Post Office in Istanbul (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments (1919–1922), Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926), State Art and Sculpture Museum (1927–1930), Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928), the first Ziraat Bank headquarters in Ankara (1925–1929), the first Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters in Ankara (1926–1929), Bebek, Istanbul, Bebek Mosque, and Kamer Hatun Mosque.
Some of the notable contemporary architects of Turkey are Behruz Çinici, Emre Arolat, Tabanlıoğlu Architects, Murat Tabanlıoğlu, Tabanlıoğlu Architects, Melkan Tabanlıoğlu, Melike Altınışık, Zeynep Fadıllıoğlu and Mehmet Kütükçüoğlu
Cuisine
Turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine. In the early years of the Republic, a few studies were published about regional Anatolian dishes but cuisine did not feature heavily in Turkish folkloric studies until the 1980s, when the fledgling tourism industry encouraged the Turkish state to sponsor two food symposia. The papers submitted at the symposia presented the history of Turkish cuisine on a "historical continuum" that dated back to Turkic origins in Central Asia and continued through the Seljuk and Ottoman periods.
Many of the papers presented at these first two symposia were unreferenced. Prior to the symposia, the study of Turkish culinary culture was first popularised by the publication of Süheyl Ünver's ''Fifty Dishes in Turkish History'' in 1948. This book was based on recipes found in an 18th century Ottoman manuscript. His second book was about the 15th century palace cuisine during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II
Mehmed II ( ota, محمد ثانى, translit=Meḥmed-i s̱ānī; tr, II. Mehmed, ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror ( ota, ابو الفتح, Ebū'l-fetḥ, lit=the Father of Conquest, links=no; tr, Fâtih Su ...
. Following the publication of Ünver's book, subsequent studies were published, including a 1978 study by a historian named Bahaettin Ögel about the Central Asian cuisine, Central Asian origins of Turkish cuisine.
Ottoman cuisine contains elements of Turkish cuisine, Turkish, Byzantine cuisine, Byzantine, Balkan cuisine, Balkan, Armenian cuisine, Armenian, Georgian cuisine, Georgian, Kurdish cuisine, Kurdish, Arab cuisine, Arab and Persian cuisine, Persian cuisines. It can be described as a fusion and refinement of Mediterranean cuisine, Mediterranean, Middle Eastern cuisine, Middle Eastern, Central Asian cuisine, Central Asian, Balkan and Eastern European cuisine, Eastern European cuisines. The country's position between Europe, Asia and the Mediterranean Sea helped the Turks in gaining complete control of the major trade routes, and an ideal landscape and climate allowed plants and animals to flourish. Turkish cuisine was well established by the mid-1400s, which marked the beginning of the Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire, classical age during the Ottoman Empire's 623-year history. Yogurt salads; mezes; fish and seafood; grilled, sauteed or steamed meat varieties; vegetables or dolma, stuffed and wrapped vegetables cooked with olive oil; and drinks like sharbat, sherbet, ayran and rakı became Turkish staples. The empire, eventually spanning from Austria and Ukraine in the north to Yemen and Sudan in the south, Algeria and the Maghreb in the west to the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf in the east, used its land and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world. By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400 live-in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food. Since the fall of the empire in World War I (1914–1918) and the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923, foreign food such as French hollandaise sauce and Western fast food have made their way into the modern Turkish diet.
Sports
The most popular Sports in Turkey, sport in Turkey is association football. Galatasaray S.K. (football), Galatasaray won the 2000 UEFA Cup Final, UEFA Cup and 2000 UEFA Super Cup, UEFA Super Cup in 2000. The Turkish national football team won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and UEFA Euro 2008.
Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. The Turkey national basketball team, men's national basketball team won the silver medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship and at EuroBasket 2001, which were both hosted by Turkey; and is one of the most successful at the Basketball at the Mediterranean Games, Mediterranean Games. Anadolu Efes S.K., the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions, won the 2021–22 EuroLeague, 2020–21 EuroLeague and the 1995–96 FIBA Korać Cup, 1995–96 FIBA Korać Cup; were the runners-up of the 2018–19 EuroLeague and the 1992–93 FIBA European Cup, 1992–93 FIBA Saporta Cup; and finished third at the 1999–2000 FIBA EuroLeague, 1999–2000 EuroLeague and the 2000–01 FIBA SuproLeague, 2000–01 SuproLeague. When the 2019–20 EuroLeague Regular Season was suspended on 12 March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, COVID-19 pandemic, Anadolu Efes S.K. 2019–20 EuroLeague#League table, ranked 1st in the league table. Another successful Turkish basketball club, Fenerbahçe Men's Basketball, Fenerbahçe reached the final of the EuroLeague in three consecutive seasons (2015–16 Euroleague, 2016, 2016–17 EuroLeague, 2017 and 2017–18 EuroLeague, 2018), becoming the European champions in 2017 and runners-up in 2016 and 2018. Galatasaray S.K. (men's basketball), Galatasaray won the 2015–16 Eurocup Basketball, 2015–16 Eurocup, and Beşiktaş men's basketball team, Beşiktaş won the 2011–12 FIBA EuroChallenge. The Final of the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, Galatasaray S.K. (women's basketball), Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe Women's Basketball, Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray. The Turkey women's national basketball team, women's national basketball team won the silver medal at the EuroBasket Women 2011 and the bronze medal at the EuroBasket Women 2013. Like the men's team, the women's basketball team is one of the most successful at the Basketball at the Mediterranean Games, Mediterranean Games.
The Turkey women's national volleyball team, women's national volleyball team won the gold medal at the 2015 European Games, the silver medal at the 2003 Women's European Volleyball Championship, 2003 European Championship, the bronze medal at the 2011 Women's European Volleyball Championship, 2011 European Championship, and the bronze medal at the 2012 FIVB World Grand Prix. They also won multiple medals over multiple decades at the Volleyball at the Mediterranean Games, Mediterranean Games. Women's volleyball clubs, namely Fenerbahçe Women's Volleyball, Fenerbahçe, Eczacıbaşı Istanbul, Eczacıbaşı and Vakıfbank Spor Kulübü, Vakıfbank, have won numerous European championship titles and medals. Fenerbahçe Women's Volleyball, Fenerbahçe won the 2010 FIVB Women's Club World Championship and the CEV Women's Champions League, 2012 CEV Women's Champions League. Representing European Volleyball Confederation, Europe as the winner of the 2012–13 CEV Women's Champions League, Vakıfbank also became the world champion by winning the 2013 FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship. Recently Vakıfbank has won the FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship in 2017 FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship, 2017 and 2018 FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship, 2018, and the 2017–18 CEV Women's Champions League for the fourth time in their history.
The traditional national sport of Turkey has been Oil wrestling, yağlı güreş (''olive oil, oil wrestling'') since Ottoman times. Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Ottoman Turkish oil wrestling champions such as Yusuf İsmail, Koca Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles, FILA such as freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.
Media and cinema
Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable cinema of Turkey, national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey. The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV (Turkey), ATV and Star TV (Turkey), Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable television, cable systems are widely available.[Turkey country profile]
Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2006). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.'' The RTÜK, Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.[ By circulation, the List of newspapers in Turkey, most popular newspapers are ''Posta (newspaper), Posta'', ''Hürriyet'', ''Sözcü'', ''Sabah (newspaper), Sabah'' and ''Habertürk''.
TRT 2 is the public service channel dedicated to culture and art.
Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations. After sweeping the Middle East's television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen South America, South and Central American countries in 2016. Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.
]
''Yeşilçam'' is the sobriquet that refers to the Turkish film art and industry. The first movie exhibited in the Ottoman Empire was the Lumiere Brothers' 1895 film, ''L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat'', which was shown in Istanbul
Istanbul ( , ; tr, İstanbul ), formerly known as Constantinople ( grc-gre, Κωνσταντινούπολις; la, Constantinopolis), is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, serving as the country's economic, ...
in 1896. The first Turkish-made film was a documentary entitled ''Ayastefanos'taki Rus Abidesinin Yıkılışı'' (''Demolition of the Russian Monument at Yeşilköy, San Stefano''), directed by Fuat Uzkınay and completed in 1914. The first narrative film, Sedat Simavi's ''The Spy'', was released in 1917. Turkey's first sound film was shown in 1931. Turkish directors like Metin Erksan, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yılmaz Güney, Zeki Demirkubuz and Ferzan Özpetek won numerous international awards such as the Palme d'Or and Golden Bear.
Despite legal provisions, media freedom in Turkey has steadily deteriorated from 2010 onwards, with a precipitous decline following the failed 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, coup attempt on 15 July 2016. As of December 2016, at least 81 List of arrested journalists in Turkey, journalists were imprisoned in Turkey and more than 100 news outlets were closed. Freedom House lists Turkey's media freedom in Turkey, media as Freedom of the Press (report), ''not free''. The media crackdowns also extend to Internet censorship with 2017 block of Wikipedia in Turkey, Wikipedia getting blocked between 29 April 2017 and 15 January 2020.
See also
* Index of Turkey-related articles
* Outline of Turkey
Notes
References
Further reading
*
*
* Reed, Fred A. (1999). ''Anatolia Junction: a Journey into Hidden Turkey''. Burnaby, BC: Talonbooks [sic]. 320 p., ill. with b&w photos.
*
* Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2005). ''Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600.'' Royal Academy of Arts. .
* .
* .
External links
;General
turkey.com
– Topical multilingual website about Turkey.
from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
from OECD
*
*
;Tourism
*
Go Türkiye – Turkey's Official Tourism Portal
Official website of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism
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;Government
Official website of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey
Official website of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey
;Economy
Official website of Ministry of the Ministry of Economy
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