Cai Lun (;
courtesy name
A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theob ...
: Jingzhong (); – 121
CE), formerly
romanized as Ts'ai Lun, was a
Chinese eunuch court official of the
Eastern Han dynasty. He is traditionally regarded as the inventor of
paper
Paper is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically or chemically processing cellulose fibres derived from wood, rags, grasses or other vegetable sources in water, draining the water through fine mesh leaving the fibre evenly distrib ...
and the modern
papermaking process. Although early forms of paper had existed since the 3rd century BCE, he occupies a pivotal place in the
history of paper due to his addition of
pulp
Pulp may refer to:
* Pulp (fruit), the inner flesh of fruit
Engineering
* Dissolving pulp, highly purified cellulose used in fibre and film manufacture
* Pulp (paper), the fibrous material used to make paper
* Molded pulp, a packaging material
...
via
tree bark
Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines, and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and cons ...
and
hemp ends which resulted in the large-scale manufacture and worldwide spread of paper.
Born in (in what is now
Leiyang
Leiyang () is a county-level city and the third most populous county-level division in Hunan Province, China. Leiyang is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Hengyang. Located on the south of the province, the city is bordered ...
), Cai arrived at the imperial court in by 75 CE, where he served as a
chamberlain
Chamberlain may refer to:
Profession
*Chamberlain (office), the officer in charge of managing the household of a sovereign or other noble figure
People
*Chamberlain (surname)
**Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855–1927), German-British philosop ...
for
Emperor Ming, and then as , an imperial messenger for
Emperor Zhang. To assist
Lady Dou in securing her adopted son as
designated heir, he interrogated
Consort Song
A consort song was a characteristic English song form of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, for solo voice or voices accompanied by a group of instruments, most commonly viols. Although usually in five parts, some early examples of four-par ...
and her sister, who then killed themselves. When
Emperor He ascended the throne in 88 CE, Dou awarded Cai with two positions: , a political counselor to the emperor that was the highest position for eunuchs of the time, and also as , where Cai oversaw the production of instruments and weapons at the Palace Workshop.
Despite Emperor He's successful
coup d'état
A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
against the Dou family in 92 CE, Cai was undisturbed by his former ally's downfall. His position in the Palace Workshop increased in scope; he became responsible for the production of
ceremonial weapon
A ceremonial weapon is an object used for ceremonial purposes to display power or authority. They are often used in parades and as part of dress uniforms.
Although they are descended from weapons used in actual combat, they are not normally use ...
s, which the reports were of exemplary craftsmanship. However, Cai's most noted innovation was in 105 CE, when he substantially improved the papermaking process with the use of tree bark, hemp waste, old rags, and
fishnets
In the field of textiles, fishnet is hosiery with an open, diamond-shaped knit; it is most often used as a material for stockings, tights, gloves or bodystockings. Fishnet is available in a multitude of colors, although it is most often sported ...
. His new type of paper quickly displaced the
bamboo and wooden slips used until then, and Cai received wealth and fame throughout the empire. In 110 CE,
Lady Deng, who had become the
empress dowager to the young
Emperor An, appointed Cai to oversee 100 scholars' new edition of the
Five Classics
The Four Books and Five Classics () are the authoritative books of Confucianism, written in China before 300 BCE. The Four Books and the Five Classics are the most important classics of Chinese Confucianism.
Four Books
The Four Books () are ...
. Cai was rewarded for his imperial service in 114 CE; he received the title of
marquis, and was
enfeoffed
In the Middle Ages, especially under the European feudal system, feoffment or enfeoffment was the deed by which a person was given land in exchange for a pledge of service. This mechanism was later used to avoid restrictions on the passage of ti ...
lord of , a small village. When his ally Deng died in 121 CE, Cai was ordered to the
Ministry of Justice A Ministry of Justice is a common type of government department that serves as a justice ministry.
Lists of current ministries of justice
Named "Ministry"
* Ministry of Justice (Abkhazia)
* Ministry of Justice (Afghanistan)
* Ministry of Just ...
because of his involvement in the death of the emperor's grandmother, Consort Song. Ashamed at his predicament and expecting to be sentenced to death, he committed
suicide that year and died in the capital city in which he had spent almost his entire adult life.
Cai's improvements to paper-making are considered to have had an enormous impact on
human history
Human history, also called world history, is the narrative of humanity's past. It is understood and studied through anthropology, archaeology, genetics, and linguistics. Since the invention of writing, human history has been studied throug ...
, and of those who created China's
Four Great Inventions
The Four Great Inventions () are inventions from ancient China that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance and as symbols of ancient China's advanced science and technology. They are the compass, gunpowder, papermakin ...
—the
compass
A compass is a device that shows the cardinal directions used for navigation and geographic orientation. It commonly consists of a magnetized needle or other element, such as a compass card or compass rose, which can pivot to align itself wit ...
,
gunpowder
Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). Th ...
, papermaking and
printing
Printing is a process for mass reproducing text and images using a master form or template. The earliest non-paper products involving printing include cylinder seals and objects such as the Cyrus Cylinder and the Cylinders of Nabonidus. The ...
—Cai is the only inventor whose name is known. Although in China he is revered in
ancestor worship
The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
,
deified
Apotheosis (, ), also called divinization or deification (), is the glorification of a subject to divine levels and, commonly, the treatment of a human being, any other living thing, or an abstract idea in the likeness of a deity. The term has ...
as the god of papermaking, and appears in
Chinese folklore
Chinese folklore encompasses the folklore of China, and includes songs, poetry, dances, puppetry, and tales. It often tells stories of human nature, historical or legendary events, love, and the supernatural. The stories often explain natural phe ...
, he is mostly unknown outside of
East Asia
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both Geography, geographical and culture, ethno-cultural terms. The modern State (polity), states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. ...
. His hometown in Leiyang remains an active center of paper production.
Biographical sources
The main source of information on Cai Lun is just 300 characters in volume 78 of the (; ''Book of the Later Han''), an
official history An official history is a work of history which is sponsored, authorised or endorsed by its subject. The term is most commonly used for histories which are produced for a government. The term also applies to commissions from non-state bodies includin ...
compiled by the
Liu Song dynasty
Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern Dynasty (南朝宋) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period ...
historian and politician
Fan Ye.
Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, a modern
sinologist, noted that while Fan's account is the most comprehensive, it is problematic as it was written nearly 300 years after Cai's death. The primary source Fan used was the 2nd-century ' (; ''History of the Eastern Han''), in which is credited as the author of Cai's biography. Yan's brief 70-character account is near-contemporary but only survives in a reconstructed state from a lost original.
[: "蔡倫字敬仲桂陽人為中常侍有才學盡忠重慎每至休沐輒閉門絶賔客曝體田野典作尚方造意用樹皮及敝布魚網作紙〈案一本作倫典尚方作紙用故麻名麻紙木皮名糓紙魚紙名網紙〉元興元年奏上之帝善其能自是莫不用天下咸稱蔡侯紙"]
: "Cai Lun, courtesy name
A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theob ...
Jingzhong, a native of , served t the courtas . He was a man of talent and learning, loyal and careful. When he was off duty, he usually shut himself up and refused to see visitors but exposed himself to nature. When he was charged with the office of , he initiated the idea of making paper from tree bark, old rags and fishing nets. He submitted the process to the emperor in the first year of 05and received praise for his ability. From this time, paper has been in use and is universally called the 'paper of Cai Lun'". Another older source is a brief mention by the 3rd-century scholar Tung Pa, who is quoted referencing Cai's papermaking accomplishments in the 10th-century ''
leishu
The ''leishu'' () is a genre of Reference work, reference books historically compiled in China and other East Asian countries. The term is generally translated as "encyclopedia", although the ''leishu'' are quite different from the modern notion ...
'' encyclopedia (; ''Readings of the Taiping Era'').
Later history books, such as the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
's ' (; ''Compound Source of Matters and Facts''), also include Cai and his work in papermaking. However, some major history books, such as the ' (; ''Annals of the Later Han'') and ' (; ''Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance'') do not mention Cai's papermaking achievements. Sinologist T. H. Barrett suggested this was because "Cai Lun was, after all, a palace
eunuch
A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function.
The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millenni ...
, precisely the sort of person normally viewed with antagonism by the regular bureaucrats who controlled the writing of official (and even most unofficial) history."
Life and career
Birth and background
Cai Lun was born in
Guiyang Commandery (; modern-day
Leiyang
Leiyang () is a county-level city and the third most populous county-level division in Hunan Province, China. Leiyang is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Hengyang. Located on the south of the province, the city is bordered ...
,
Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi ...
province)
[: "蔡伦字敬仲,桂陽人也。"]
"Cai Lun's courtesy name was Jingzhong, and he was from Guiyang Commandery." in the
Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE). His exact year of birth is unknown; estimates include , , and . Other than being born into a poor family, virtually nothing is known of his early life. Guiyang was a southern
commandery
In the Middle Ages, a commandery (rarely commandry) was the smallest administrative division of the European landed properties of a military order. It was also the name of the house where the knights of the commandery lived.Anthony Luttrell and G ...
, where
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctiv ...
had immigrated for hundreds of years to plant and cultivate rice. Legends suggest there was a pool near his home, south of which was a stone mortar that Cai would later use for
papermaking.
Early imperial court service
![刘炟](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/%E5%88%98%E7%82%9F.jpg)
It is not known how Cai came to be in the service of the imperial court in (modern-day
Luoyang
Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang ...
,
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is al ...
province), which was distant from his birthplace. The reports that he was first employed during the end of the era (58–75) of
Emperor Ming.
[: "以永平末始给事宫掖"]
"He began serving in the palace at the end of the era".
: At the close of the reign of , Cai Lun was employed at the court". The site of modern Guiyang Commandery was known to have had various iron mines at the time, so the former director of the
Paper Museum
The Paper Museum is a museum about paper in Asukayama Park in Kita-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bor ...
in Tokyo, Kiyofusa Narita, suggested that "through the assistance of some who were in charge of the iron foundry, he found opportunity to go to the capital city". Narita cited Cai's future court appointment to oversee the production of weapons, especially
swords, as evidence that he must have learned the skills to do so earlier in his life, likely from the iron foundry. Alternatively, if there is any truth to the various
folktales about Cai, his supposed habits of trickery may have helped him receive a court appointment.
Cai is known to have been a eunuch in 75 CE, although it is possible he was employed somewhat earlier in the era; sinologist
Rafe de Crespigny suggested this was in the early 70s. In the Han dynasty, eunuchs were employed in imperial service and were the only people eligible for certain specialized tasks, such as watching over the
imperial harem
The Imperial Harem ( ota, حرم همايون, ) of the Ottoman Empire was the Ottoman sultan's harem – composed of the wives, servants (both female slaves and eunuchs), female relatives and the sultan's concubines – occupying a secluded po ...
and the imperial household; there were also certain promotions available exclusively for them. Cai's position was probably as a liaison between the
privy council and the emperor, and likely involved duties akin to a
chamberlain
Chamberlain may refer to:
Profession
*Chamberlain (office), the officer in charge of managing the household of a sovereign or other noble figure
People
*Chamberlain (surname)
**Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855–1927), German-British philosop ...
for the imperial family. Narita notes Cai's role meant he would have had many chances to become acquainted with the most powerful people in the empire. Around 80 CE, during the subsequent era (76–84) under
Emperor Zhang, Cai was promoted to a ''
Xiao Huangmen'' (; "Attendant at the Yellow Gates").
[: "建初中,为小黄門。"]
"At the beginning of the era, he served as ".
: "During the period (76–84), Cai Lun formed part of the Imperial Guard." The position, with a salary-rank of 600 ''shi'' or ''dan'', involved delivering and receiving messages between the imperial palace apartments and the outside court.
Palace intrigue and workshop
Since 82 CE,
Liu Qing, Zhang's son from his concubine
Consort Song
A consort song was a characteristic English song form of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, for solo voice or voices accompanied by a group of instruments, most commonly viols. Although usually in five parts, some early examples of four-par ...
, had been the
designated heir, secured by the favor of
Empress Ma. However, Ma's death in 79 CE made
Lady Dou the empress, and—aiming to develop her family's power—she adopted
Prince Zhao with the intention of installing him as heir. As a result, when Song became ill in 82 and asked for herbs, Dou falsely accused her of planning to use the herbs for witchcraft against Zhang. Dou then ordered Cai to interrogate Consort Song and her sister, another imperial consort, to force a confession; they both killed themselves. Believing Dou's accusation, Zhang replaced Liu Qing with Prince Zhao as heir.
Prince Zhao, ruling as Emperor He, was 10 years old at his accession in 88 CE, so Dou took control as
empress dowager and secured her authority by giving various positions to her four brothers, particularly
Dou Xian, who promoted Cai to (; "Regular Attendant") for his loyalty. Cai served as a private counselor to He in political matters;
[:"及和帝即位,转中常侍,豫参帷幄。"]
"After Emperor He took the throne, he became , and he participated in key strategic decisions."
: "The Emperor He, on coming to the throne, knowing that Cai Lun was a man full of talent and zeal, appointed him a privy counsellor."
: "The Emperor He, upon his accession, learning of Cai Lun's superior qualities and talents, named him private counsellor". this post gave Cai a salary-rank of 2000 ''shi'', and was the highest eunuch-exclusive position, which also made him a chief eunuch of the palace. In the , Cai was characterized as, in the words of de Crespigny, "honest, cautious and a good judge of policy".
[:"伦有才學,尽心敦慎,数犯严颜,匡弼得失。每至休沐,辄闭門绝宾,暴体田野。"]
"Cai Lun was talented and learned. He used his full effort and was careful. He often was willing to correct the wrongs, even when it offended the stern faced hose in power When he had vacation days, he would close his door and not entertain guests, but spent time in the field." Cai was also designated (; "Prefect of the Palace Workshop" or "Prefect of the Masters of Techniques") later in 88 or 89 CE.
[:"后加位尚方令。"]
"He was later given the additional post of Shangfangling." While in this eunuch-only position, he would have been responsible for the production of instruments and weapons for imperial use. The role had a salary-rank of 600 ''shi''—though this was in addition to the 2000 ''shi'' from his continued post.
When Emperor He came of age in 92 CE he led various officials, especially
Zheng Zhong, in a
coup d'état
A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
to overthrow the Dou family. Cai was not involved in their removal, and though he was previously allied with the family, he was undisturbed by the Emperor's coup. In 97 CE, his position as expanded in scope, as he became responsible for
ceremonial swords and other items. The describes his craftsmanship as high-quality and a model for later generations.
[:"永元九年,监作秘剑及诸器械,莫不精工坚密,为后世法。"]
"In the 9th year of the era 7 he oversaw the manufacturing of imperial swords and other equipment, which were all made carefully and well, and he became an example for later generations."
: "In the ninth year of the period (97) Cai Lun became inspector of public works. By his plans and according to his arrangements, engineers and workmen made, always with the best of materials, swords and arms of various sorts. Later generations could do no better than imitate his methods of work."
: "In the ninth year of the reign of (97), Cai Lun was made inspector of works and through his efforts the engineers and workmen by the use of fine materials and skill produced swords and arms that served as models for future generations."
Development of paper
![Making Paper](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Making_Paper.gif)
In 105, Cai publicly declared that he had invented a new composition for paper with a new papermaking process. Writing had a long history in China with writing surfaces being
bamboo and wooden slips (wood for short text and
bamboo
Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...
for lengthy text). These media were inconvenient as they were awkward to store, heavy, and difficult to write on. After
Meng Tian
Meng Tian (c. 250 BC – 210 BC) was a Chinese inventor and military general of the Qin dynasty who distinguished himself in campaigns against the Xiongnu and in the construction of the Great Wall of China. He was the elder brother of Meng Yi. ...
purportedly created an animal-hair brush for writing in 3rd-century BCE,
silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the ...
and
cloth
Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...
became alternatives that addressed these issues, but they were too expensive for widespread use. The absence of a practical solution motivated continued experimentation with different materials; Cai's
pulp
Pulp may refer to:
* Pulp (fruit), the inner flesh of fruit
Engineering
* Dissolving pulp, highly purified cellulose used in fibre and film manufacture
* Pulp (paper), the fibrous material used to make paper
* Molded pulp, a packaging material
...
solution proved the most effective. His process still used bamboo, but also introduced
hemp waste, old rags,
fishnets
In the field of textiles, fishnet is hosiery with an open, diamond-shaped knit; it is most often used as a material for stockings, tights, gloves or bodystockings. Fishnet is available in a multitude of colors, although it is most often sported ...
, and most importantly,
bark from trees (likely
mulberry). The materials were boiled to a pulp that was beaten with a wood or stone mallet before being mixed with a large amount of water. The resulting mixture was then processed with wooden
sieve
A sieve, fine mesh strainer, or sift, is a device for separating wanted elements from unwanted material or for controlling the particle size distribution of a sample, using a screen such as a woven mesh or net or perforated sheet materia ...
s and the excess water removed, leaving the paper finished once dry. The paper that resulted from this method is often referred to as "Cai Hou paper" (). This event and its context are relayed in an often cited passage of the :
Many legends about the inspiration for Cai's invention exist; one of the most popular said that Cai was inspired by watching
paper wasp
Paper wasps are vespid wasps that gather fibers from dead wood and plant stems, which they mix with saliva, and use to construct nests made of gray or brown papery material. Some types of paper wasps are also sometimes called umbrella wasps, d ...
s make their nests. Tsien suggested that Cai was inspired by the people of his birthplace, who used bark from mulberry trees to create cloth as a writing surface. Irrespective of its origin, in 105 CE, Cai's new papermaking process both impressed He and earned him fame throughout the empire.
Final years and death
After the infant
Emperor Shang's eight-month reign, in 106 CE Emperor He was succeeded by 13-year-old
Emperor An, while
Lady Deng ruled as empress dowager. Both Cai and Zheng maintained influence in Deng's court. In 110 CE, Deng assembled more than 100 scholars—including , and
Ma Rong—in the Eastern Pavilion of the palace to begin creating a definitive edition of the
Five Classics
The Four Books and Five Classics () are the authoritative books of Confucianism, written in China before 300 BCE. The Four Books and the Five Classics are the most important classics of Chinese Confucianism.
Four Books
The Four Books () are ...
. She appointed Cai to oversee and supervise the production; de Crespigny said that this meant Cai "was seriously concerned with scholarship". In 114 CE, he was awarded the title of ''
marquis'' and the imperial court
enfeoffed
In the Middle Ages, especially under the European feudal system, feoffment or enfeoffment was the deed by which a person was given land in exchange for a pledge of service. This mechanism was later used to avoid restrictions on the passage of ti ...
him as the lord of , a small village of 300 families in modern-day
Yang County
Yang County, or Yangxian (), is a county in Hanzhong, Shaanxi Province, China. The county spans an area of , and has a population of about 445,000. Yang County lies within the Shaanan region, on the easternmost portion of the Hanzhong Basin, bor ...
,
Shaanxi
Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), N ...
. Later that year Zheng died and Cai succeeded him as the head of the Dowager's household.
An assumed power after Deng's death in 121 CE, though the court was dominated by the influence of Empress
Yan Ji and her brothers. Remembering Cai's part in the death of his grandmother, Consort Song, An ordered Cai to report to the
Ministry of Justice A Ministry of Justice is a common type of government department that serves as a justice ministry.
Lists of current ministries of justice
Named "Ministry"
* Ministry of Justice (Abkhazia)
* Ministry of Justice (Afghanistan)
* Ministry of Just ...
to answer the charges, and presumably sentence him to death. Ashamed that the Emperor would send him to death in a dishonorable way, Cai bathed and dressed in formal clothes before
killing himself by drinking poison.
Legacy
Global influence
Historical assessment
Due to modern archeological investigations, it is now certain that different forms of paper existed in China as early as 3rd-century BCE, though the findings do not necessarily discount the credit given to Cai. The Chinese scholar Tsien Tsuen-hsuin explained that the term used in Cai's ancient biography, ''zào yì'' (), can be understood as "to initiate the idea", meaning that he furthered the ongoing process with the addition of important materials. Additionally, Cai is responsible for the earliest known use of tree bark and hemp as ingredients for paper, and it is clear that paper did not see widespread use in China until Cai's improvements. As such, scholars have revised his contributions as ones that furthered an ongoing process instead of a sudden discovery. However, due to the pivotal significance of his improvements and the resulting spread of paper use throughout China, Cai continues to be traditionally credited with inventing paper. There is also speculation that Cai was the patron of this achievement and took credit from someone else, as
may have done with his improvements to
printing
Printing is a process for mass reproducing text and images using a master form or template. The earliest non-paper products involving printing include cylinder seals and objects such as the Cyrus Cylinder and the Cylinders of Nabonidus. The ...
.
Spread of paper
![Cai Lun with Donchō and Mochizuki Seibee (Minobu Museum of History and Folklore)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Cai_Lun_with_Donch%C5%8D_and_Mochizuki_Seibee_%28Minobu_Museum_of_History_and_Folklore%29.jpg)
Cai's improvements to paper and the papermaking process are considered especially impactful to
human history
Human history, also called world history, is the narrative of humanity's past. It is understood and studied through anthropology, archaeology, genetics, and linguistics. Since the invention of writing, human history has been studied throug ...
, as they resulted in the spread of literature and
knowledge
Knowledge can be defined as Descriptive knowledge, awareness of facts or as Procedural knowledge, practical skills, and may also refer to Knowledge by acquaintance, familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called pro ...
around the world, and advancements in communications. However, Cai is only somewhat known outside
East Asia
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both Geography, geographical and culture, ethno-cultural terms. The modern State (polity), states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. ...
and is often excluded from major encyclopedias. The scholar of paper history,
Thomas Francis Carter, drew parallels between Cai and
Johannes Gutenberg, the inventor of a
movable type
Movable type (US English; moveable type in British English) is the system and technology of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual alphanumeric characters or punctuation m ...
printing press
A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in which the ...
, calling them "spiritual father and son" respectively. In his 1978 book, ''
The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History'',
Michael H. Hart ranked him 7th, above figures such as Gutenberg,
Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus
* lij, Cristoffa C(or)ombo
* es, link=no, Cristóbal Colón
* pt, Cristóvão Colombo
* ca, Cristòfor (or )
* la, Christophorus Columbus. (; born between 25 August and 31 October 1451, died 20 May 1506) was a ...
,
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theory ...
and
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin ( ; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended ...
. In 2007, ''
Time
Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, ...
'' ranked him among the "Best Inventors" of all time.
After Cai's efforts in 105 CE, a renowned paper maker who may have been an apprentice to Cai—variously recorded by modern sources as Zuo Bo; Tso Po (
courtesy name
A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theob ...
: Tzu-i) from Tung-Hai,
Shandong; or Tso Tzǔ-yi—improved the process in 150 CE or later in the Han dynasty. Other than this, the basic principles of Cai's papermaking process have changed little over time, and the new form of paper spread throughout China. According to legend, the
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
monk
Damjing
Damjing (), or Donchō (in Japanese), was a Korean Buddhist priest who was sent to ancient Japan from Goguryeo around 610. How his name was pronounced in the Goguryeo language is unknown.
Almost nothing has come down about him besides a few line ...
brought the process to
Japan, though this is unconfirmed. Damjing occupies a similar
patron saint
A patron saint, patroness saint, patron hallow or heavenly protector is a saint who in Catholicism, Anglicanism, or Eastern Orthodoxy is regarded as the heavenly advocate of a nation, place, craft, activity, class, clan, family, or perso ...
position in Japan that Cai does in China. By the 600s the process appeared in
Turkestan
Turkestan, also spelled Turkistan ( fa, ترکستان, Torkestân, lit=Land of the Turks), is a historical region in Central Asia corresponding to the regions of Transoxiana and Xinjiang.
Overview
Known as Turan to the Persians, western Turk ...
,
Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
, and
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, while Chinese prisoners from the
Battle of Talas spread the knowledge to Arabs in the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
. Unlike many
Chinese inventions
China has been the source of many innovations, scientific discoveries and inventions. This includes the ''Four Great Inventions'': papermaking, the compass, gunpowder, and printing (both woodblock and movable type). The list below contains ...
that were created independently in
Western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
, the modern papermaking process was a wholly Chinese product and gradually spread via the Arabs to Europe, where it also saw widespread manufacturing by the 12th century. In August 2010, the
International Astronomical Union
The International Astronomical Union (IAU; french: link=yes, Union astronomique internationale, UAI) is a nongovernmental organisation with the objective of advancing astronomy in all aspects, including promoting astronomical research, outreac ...
honored Cai's legacy by naming
a crater on the Moon after him.
Influence in China
Folklore
While Cai's personal life is mostly unknown, a popular
folktale
A folktale or folk tale is a folklore genre that typically consists of a story passed down from generation to generation orally.
Folktale may also refer to:
Categories of stories
* Folkloric tale from oral tradition
* Fable (written form of the a ...
suggests he was a shopkeeper and
trickster
In mythology and the study of folklore and religion, a trickster is a character in a story ( god, goddess, spirit, human or anthropomorphisation) who exhibits a great degree of intellect or secret knowledge and uses it to play tricks or otherwi ...
with a wife and brother, though there is no historical confirmation for this. The story goes that after Cai's improvements to paper there was little demand for the product so he had an ever-growing surplus. As such, Cai and his wife developed a ploy to increase sales; they told townsfolk that paper becomes money in the afterlife
when burned.
In the most popular variation to the tale, Cai Mo and Hui Niang—Cai's brother and sister-in-law of unconfirmed
historicity
Historicity is the historical actuality of persons and events, meaning the quality of being part of history instead of being a historical myth, legend, or fiction. The historicity of a claim about the past is its factual status. Historicity denot ...
—take the place of Cai and his wife. In this version, Hui convinced Cai Mo to learn the new papermaking trade from his younger brother, and when he returned in only three months, the paper he and his wife produced was too low quality to sell. To address this, Hui pretended to have died, and Cai Mo stood beside her coffin, wailing and burning money as tribute. Then, their neighbors checked in on them, and Hui sprung out of the coffin, explaining that the burned money was transferred to her in the afterlife, with which she paid ghosts to return her from the dead. Believing the story, the neighbors quickly purchased large amounts of paper for their own use. While mostly a fictitious story, intense wailing and burning offerings are commonplace in Chinese culture.
Deification and remembrance
Of those who originated China's
Four Great Inventions
The Four Great Inventions () are inventions from ancient China that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance and as symbols of ancient China's advanced science and technology. They are the compass, gunpowder, papermakin ...
of the ancient world—the
compass
A compass is a device that shows the cardinal directions used for navigation and geographic orientation. It commonly consists of a magnetized needle or other element, such as a compass card or compass rose, which can pivot to align itself wit ...
,
gunpowder
Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). Th ...
, papermaking and printing—only the inventor of papermaking, Cai Lun, is known. Additionally, in comparison to other Chinese inventions such as the writing brush and
ink
Ink is a gel, sol, or solution that contains at least one colorant, such as a dye or pigment, and is used to color a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing or writing with a pen, brush, reed pen, or quill. Thicker ...
, the development of paper is the best documented in literary sources.
After his death in 121 CE, a shrine with his grave was built in his hometown, but was soon neglected and damaged by floods while his name was largely forgotten. During the early
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
, many national heroes were
deified
Apotheosis (, ), also called divinization or deification (), is the glorification of a subject to divine levels and, commonly, the treatment of a human being, any other living thing, or an abstract idea in the likeness of a deity. The term has ...
, such as
Li Bai
Li Bai (, 701–762), also pronounced as Li Bo, courtesy name Taibai (), was a Chinese poet, acclaimed from his own time to the present as a brilliant and romantic figure who took traditional poetic forms to new heights. He and his friend Du F ...
and
Guan Yu
Guan Yu (; ), courtesy name Yunchang, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Along with Zhang Fei, he shared a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and accompanied him on ...
as the gods of wine and war respectively. Cai was among the important people declared gods, and was deified as the national god of papermaking. Cai also became a patron saint for papermakers, with his image often being painted or printed onto paper mills and paper shops in not only China, but also Japan. In 1267, a man named Chen Tsunghsi raised funds to repair the long-damaged shrine, and renovated it to include a statue of Cai and a
mausoleum. Chen stated that "Tsai Lung's
ai Lun'sextraordinary talent and his achievement are exemplary to all ages." A stone mortar, which legends claim Cai used to make paper, may have been brought to the mausoleum, although other sources say it was brought to the Imperial Museum in the capital of
Lin'an. A great ceremony was held for the new mausoleum, though it fell into ruin again and was restored in 1955. Today, the temple still stands in Leiyang as the near a pool, renamed the "Cai Lun Pool", that was thought to be near Cai's home. In the Song dynasty, Fei Chu () said there was a temple in
Chengdu
Chengdu (, ; simplified Chinese: 成都; pinyin: ''Chéngdū''; Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ), alternatively romanized as Chengtu, is a sub-provincial city which serves as the capital of the Chinese pro ...
where hundreds of families in the papermaking business would come to worship Cai.
During the late
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
, papermakers created religious groups, known as either "spirit-money associations" () or "Cai Lun associations" (). In 1839, the from the town of Yingjiang was sued by in Macun and Zhongxing of
Jiajiang County,
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of the ...
. The conflict began when the of Yingjiang claimed that their statue of Cai—which they carried throughout Jiajiang County annually—gave them ritual supremacy over Macun and Zhongxing papermakers, whom they demanded pay for and take part in their celebrations. The from Macun and Zhongxing denied the demand, citing their long history of worshipping Cai, which resulted in increasing conflict between the sides and eventually a lawsuit. The
county magistrate
County magistrate ( or ) sometimes called local magistrate, in imperial China was the official in charge of the '' xian'', or county, the lowest level of central government. The magistrate was the official who had face-to-face relations with th ...
reproached both parties for descending into conflict and said: "Did they not understand that all of them owed their livelihood to Lord Cai, who had taught them the art of papermaking? Were they not all disciples of Lord Cai, who wanted them to share the benefits of the trade?"
In the 21st century, Leiyang is still famous as Cai's birthplace and has active paper production. In modern-day China, Cai's name is closely associated with paper, and is the namesake of the Cai Lun Paper Culture Museum and at least five roads: ,
Pudong
Pudong is a district of Shanghai located east of the Huangpu, the river which flows through central Shanghai. The name ''Pudong'' was originally applied to the Huangpu's east bank, directly across from the west bank or Puxi, the historic cit ...
, Shanghai; Cailun Road,
Minhang District
Minhang District is a suburban district of Shanghai with a land area of and population of 2,429,000 residents as of 2010. The original Minhang consist of present-day Jiangchuan Road Subdistrict (Former Minhang Town) and the eastern strip of Wu ...
, Shanghai; Cailun Road,
Fuyang District
() is one of ten urban districts of the prefecture-level city of Hangzhou, the capital of Zhejiang Province, East China. Fuyang is located in the northwest of Zhejiang on the Fuchun River, a tributary of the Qiantang River. The city is the birt ...
,
Hangzhou
Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the province, sitting at the head of Hangzhou Bay, whic ...
,
Zhejiang
Zhejiang ( or , ; , Chinese postal romanization, also romanized as Chekiang) is an East China, eastern, coastal Provinces of China, province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable citie ...
; Cailun Road East Crossing,
Weiyang District
Weiyang District () is one of 11 District (China), urban districts of the prefecture-level city of Xi'an, the capital of Shaanxi, Shaanxi Province, Northwest China, Northwest China. It is located at northwest Xi'an, functioning as the new admini ...
,
Xi'an
Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by other names, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain, the city is the third most populous city in Western China, after Chongqi ...
; and Cailun Road,
Yaohai District
Yaohai District () is one of four urban districts of the prefecture-level city of Hefei, the capital of Anhui Province, East China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List ...
,
Hefei,
Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
.
Notes
Citations
Early
:''When applicable, this list identifies the relevant passage of early sources in addition to a modern citation. Per
WP:TRANSCRIPTION, a translation from a Wikipedia editor is given and, if available, a loose translation from a modern source is provided.''
Modern
Bibliography
Early
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Modern
Books
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Journals
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Online
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Further reading
*
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* See pages 79–80 for information on a stamp of Cai Lun issued by
China Post
China Post, legally the China Post Group Corporation ( zh, 中国邮政集团有限公司, Pinyin: ''Zhōngguó yóuzhèng jítuán yǒuxiàn gōngsī''), is the state-owned enterprise operating the official postal service of China, which pro ...
in 1962
External links
*
Cai Lunat
Chinaknowledge
Chinaknowledge, with the subtitle "a universal guide for China studies", is an English-language hobbyist's web site that contains a wide variety of information on China and Chinese topics. The site was founded by and is maintained by Ulrich Theo ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cai, Lun
Year of birth uncertain
121 deaths
1st-century Chinese people
2nd-century Chinese people
Chinese inventors
Chinese politicians who committed suicide
Deified Chinese people
Han dynasty eunuchs
Han dynasty politicians
Papermakers
Papermaking in China
People from Leiyang
Suicides by poison
Suicides in the Han dynasty