The Ming treasure voyages were the seven maritime expeditions undertaken by
Ming China's
treasure fleet between 1405 and 1433. The
Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor (; pronounced ; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di (), was the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424.
Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dyn ...
ordered the construction of the treasure fleet in 1403. The grand project resulted in far-reaching ocean voyages to the coastal territories and islands in and around the
South China Sea
The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by the shores of South China (hence the name), in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan and northwestern Phil ...
, the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...
, and beyond. Admiral
Zheng He
Zheng He (; 1371–1433 or 1435) was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat, fleet admiral, and court eunuch during China's early Ming dynasty. He was originally born as Ma He in a Muslim family and later adopted the surname Zheng conferred ...
was commissioned to command the treasure fleet for the expeditions. Six of the voyages occurred during the Yongle reign (r. 1402–24), while the seventh voyage occurred during the
Xuande
Xuande () (8 February 1426 – 17 January 1436) was the era name of the Xuande Emperor, the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty of China.
Comparison table
Other eras contemporaneous with Xuande
* Vietnam
** ''Thiên Khánh'' (天慶, 1426–142 ...
reign (r. 1425–1435). The first three voyages reached up to
Calicut
Kozhikode (), also known in English as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. It has a corporation limit population of 609,224 and a metropolitan population of more than 2 million, making it the second la ...
on India's
Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...
, while the fourth voyage went as far as
Hormuz in the
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Persis, Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a Mediterranean sea (oceanography), me ...
. In the last three voyages, the fleet traveled up to the
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate ...
and
East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa:
Due to the historical ...
.
The Chinese expeditionary fleet was heavily militarized and carried great amounts of treasures, which served to project Chinese power and wealth to the known world. They brought back many foreign ambassadors whose kings and rulers were willing to declare themselves
tributaries of China. During the course of the voyages, they
destroyed Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet at Palembang,
captured the Sinhalese Kotte kingdom of King Alekeshvara, and defeated the forces of the
Semudera
The Samudera Pasai Sultanate (), also known as Samudera or Pasai or Samudera Darussalam or Pacem, was a Muslim harbour kingdom on the north coast of Sumatra from the 13th to the 16th centuries CE. The kingdom was believed to have been founded ...
pretender Sekandar in northern
Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
. The Chinese maritime exploits brought many foreign countries into the nation's
tributary system
A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conqu ...
and sphere of influence through both military and political supremacy, thus incorporating the states into the greater Chinese world order under Ming
suzerainty
Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is cal ...
. Moreover, the Chinese restructured and established control over an expansive
maritime network in which the region became
integrated and its countries became interconnected on an economic and political level.
The Ming treasure voyages were commanded and overseen by the
eunuch establishment whose political influence was heavily dependent on imperial favor. Within Ming China's imperial state system, the civil officials were the primary political opponents of the eunuchs and the opposing faction against the expeditions. Around the end of the maritime voyages, the civil government gained the upper hand within the state bureaucracy, while the eunuchs gradually fell out of favor after the death of the Yongle Emperor and lost the authority to conduct these large-scale endeavors. The collapse of the expeditions was further brought about by the elite-driven economic interests against the central state control of commerce, as the maritime enterprise had been key to counterbalancing much of the localized private trade, which drew the enmity of authorities that benefited from that trade.
Over the course of the maritime voyages in the early 15th century, Ming China became the pre-eminent
naval power by projecting its sea power further to the south and west. There is still much debate regarding issues such as the actual purpose of the voyages, the size of the ships, the magnitude of the fleet, the routes taken, the nautical charts employed, the countries visited, and the cargo carried.
Background
Creation of the fleet
![Portrait assis de l'empereur Ming Chengzu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg)
The
Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor (; pronounced ; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di (), was the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424.
Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dyn ...
of
Ming China inherited a powerful navy from his predecessor, the
Hongwu Emperor
The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1368 to 1398.
As famine, plagues and peasant revolts in ...
, and further developed it as an instrument for an expansive overseas policy.
[.][.] The contains 24 short entries for the imperial orders for shipbuilding, with figures pointing to at least 2,868 ships, from 1403 to 1419.
[.] Over the course of 1403, the
Fujian
Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capi ...
,
Jiangxi
Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
,
Zhejiang
Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Jiang ...
, and
Huguang
Huguang was a province of China during the Yuan and Ming dynasties. It was founded by the Yuan dynasty in 1274. During the Yuan dynasty it included the areas of modern Hubei south of the Yangtze river, Hunan, Guizhou, and Guangxi. During the Ming ...
's provincial governments as well as
Nanjing
Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...
,
Suzhou
Suzhou (; ; Suzhounese: ''sou¹ tseu¹'' , Mandarin: ), alternately romanized as Soochow, is a major city in southern Jiangsu province, East China. Suzhou is the largest city in Jiangsu, and a major economic center and focal point of trade ...
, and other cities' military garrisons were ordered to begin constructing ships.
[.]
Under the reign of the Yongle Emperor, Ming China underwent
militaristic expansionism with ventures such as the treasure voyages.
[.] In 1403, he issued an imperial order to start the immense construction project of the
treasure fleet.
[.] The treasure fleet was known by its original designation () in Chinese sources. It came to comprise many trading ships, warships, and support vessels.
[ The Longjiang shipyard was the construction site for many of the fleet's ships,][.] including all of the treasure ships.[ It was located on the ]Qinhuai River
The Qinhuai River () is a tributary of the Yangtze with a total length of 110 km. It flows through central Nanjing and is called "Nanjing's mother river". It is the "life blood" of the city. The Qinhuai River is divided into inner and outer river ...
near Nanjing
Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...
, where it flows into the Yangtze River
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest list of rivers of Asia, river in Asia, the list of rivers by length, third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in th ...
.[ Many trees were cut along the Min River and upper reaches of the Yangtze to supply the necessary resources for the fleet's construction.][ Existing ships have also been converted to serve in the treasure fleet for the sea voyages, but this can only be said with certainty for 249 ships ordered in 1407.
The fleet's high-ranking officers, such as ]Zheng He
Zheng He (; 1371–1433 or 1435) was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat, fleet admiral, and court eunuch during China's early Ming dynasty. He was originally born as Ma He in a Muslim family and later adopted the surname Zheng conferred ...
and his associates, were from the eunuch
A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function.
The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...
establishment.[.] For instance, Zheng served as the Grand Director in the Directorate of Palace Servants, a eunuch-dominated department, before his command of the expeditions.[.] The emperor placed great trust in Zheng and appointed him to command the treasure fleet.[.] He even gave him blank scrolls stamped with his seal to issue imperial orders at sea.[ All of the other principal officers, such as Wang Jinghong, Hou Xian, Li Xing, Zhu Liang, ]Zhou Man
Zhou Man (), was a 15th-century Chinese admiral and explorer. He was born into a wealthy merchant family in the year 1378. When he was six years old, his father died on an overseas voyage to Korea. Mourning his father's death, he left his mother ...
, Hong Bao
Hong Bao (; '' fl.'' ''ca.'' 1412–1433) was a Chinese eunuch sent on overseas diplomatic missions during the reigns of the Yongle Emperor and Xuande Emperor in the Ming dynasty. He is best known as the commander of one of the detached squadron ...
, Yang Zhen, Zhang Da, and Wu Zhong, were court eunuchs employed in the civil service.[.] The rest of the crew was predominantly from the Ming military[ and was mostly recruited from Fujian.][.]
Regions
During the onset of their voyages, the Chinese treasure fleet embarked from the Longjiang shipyard and sailed down the Yangtze River to Liujiagang Liuhe (; (Liuho) lit. "Liu Creek") is a town under the jurisdiction of Taicang county-level city in Suzhou, China. Liuhe has an area of , with around permanent residents.
Name
Liuhe town was called Liujiagang (; lit. "Liu Family Harbor"). It is s ...
, where Zheng He organized his fleet and made sacrifices to the goddess Tianfei.[.] Over the course of the following four to eight weeks, the fleet gradually proceeded to Taiping anchorage in Changle
(, Foochow Romanized: Diòng-lŏ̤h) is one of 6 urban districts of the prefecture-level city of Fuzhou, the capital of Fujian Province, China. It occupies a land area of and a sea area of . Changle was established in the sixth year of Em ...
,[ where they waited for the favorable northeast winter monsoon before leaving the Fujian coast.][.][.] The monsoon winds generally affected how the fleet sailed through the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.[ They reached the sea through the Wuhumen (lit. "five tiger passage") of the Min River in Fujian.][ The port of ]Qui Nhon
Quy Nhon ( vi, Quy Nhơn ) is a coastal city in Bình Định province in central Vietnam. It is composed of 16 wards and five communes with a total of . Quy Nhon is the capital of Bình Định province. As of 2019 its population was 457,400. H ...
in Champa
Champa (Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ; km, ចាម្ប៉ា; vi, Chiêm Thành or ) were a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is contemporary central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd cen ...
was always the first foreign destination that the fleet visited.[
The voyages sent the treasure fleet to the so-called Western Ocean (西洋), derived from an ancient Chinese geographical concept, which was used to refer to the maritime region encompassing today's ]South China Sea
The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by the shores of South China (hence the name), in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan and northwestern Phil ...
and Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...
during the Ming dynasty. More specifically, contemporary sources including the ''Yingya Shenglan
The ''Yingya Shenglan'' (), written by Ma Huan in 1451, is a book about the countries visited by him over the course of the Ming treasure voyages led by Zheng He
Zheng He (; 1371–1433 or 1435) was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diploma ...
'' seem to indicate that the Eastern Ocean ended at Brunei
Brunei ( , ), formally Brunei Darussalam ( ms, Negara Brunei Darussalam, Jawi alphabet, Jawi: , ), is a country located on the north coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Apart from its South China Sea coast, it is completely sur ...
and the Western Ocean was west of this place.
During the first three voyages from 1405 to 1411, the fleet followed the same basic maritime route: from Fujian to the first call in Champa, across the South China Sea to Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
and Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
, up the Strait of Malacca
The Strait of Malacca is a narrow stretch of water, 500 mi (800 km) long and from 40 to 155 mi (65–250 km) wide, between the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia) to the northeast and the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southwest, connec ...
to northern Sumatra for assembly of the fleet, across the Indian Ocean to Ceylon
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
, then along the Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...
to Calicut
Kozhikode (), also known in English as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. It has a corporation limit population of 609,224 and a metropolitan population of more than 2 million, making it the second la ...
. At the time, the fleet sailed no further than Calicut.[ During the fourth voyage, the route was extended to Hormuz.][.][ During the fifth, sixth, and seventh voyages, the fleet traveled further to destinations in the ]Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate ...
and East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa:
Due to the historical ...
.[ For the sixth voyage, the fleet sailed up to Calicut, where several detached squadrons proceeded to further destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.][ For the seventh voyage, the fleet followed the route up to Hormuz, while detached squadrons traveled to other places at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.][
]
Course
First voyage
In the third lunar month (30 March to 28 April) of 1405, a preliminary order was issued to Admiral Zheng He
Zheng He (; 1371–1433 or 1435) was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat, fleet admiral, and court eunuch during China's early Ming dynasty. He was originally born as Ma He in a Muslim family and later adopted the surname Zheng conferred ...
and others to lead 27,000 troops to the Western Ocean. An imperial edict, dated 11 July 1405, was issued containing the order for the expedition.[.][.] It was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and others.[.]
The Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor (; pronounced ; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di (), was the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424.
Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dyn ...
held a banquet for the crew on the evening before the fleet's maiden voyage.[ Gifts were presented to the officers and the common crew according to their rank.][ Sacrifices and prayers were offered to Tianfei, the patron goddess of sailors, in the hopes of ensuring a successful journey and safe passage during the voyage.][.] In the autumn of 1405, the treasure fleet had assembled at Nanjing
Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...
and was ready to depart from the city. According to the ''Taizong Shilu
The ''Ming Shilu'' () contains the imperial annals of the emperors of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). It is the single largest historical source for the dynasty. According to modern historians, it "plays an extremely important role in the histo ...
'''s 11 July 1405 entry about the dispatch of the fleet, Zheng and "others" departed for the first expedition "bearing imperial letters to the countries of the Western Ocean and with gifts to their kings of gold brocade
Brocade is a class of richly decorative shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in colored silks and sometimes with gold and silver threads. The name, related to the same root as the word "broccoli", comes from Italian ''broccato'' meaning "embos ...
, patterned silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the coc ...
s, and colored silk gauze, according to their status".[.] The treasure fleet made a stop at Liujiagang Liuhe (; (Liuho) lit. "Liu Creek") is a town under the jurisdiction of Taicang county-level city in Suzhou, China. Liuhe has an area of , with around permanent residents.
Name
Liuhe town was called Liujiagang (; lit. "Liu Family Harbor"). It is s ...
.[.][ There, the fleet was organized in squadrons while the fleet's crew honored Tianfei with prayers and sacrifices.] Then, the fleet sailed down the coast to Taiping anchorage in Changle
(, Foochow Romanized: Diòng-lŏ̤h) is one of 6 urban districts of the prefecture-level city of Fuzhou, the capital of Fujian Province, China. It occupies a land area of and a sea area of . Changle was established in the sixth year of Em ...
near the Min River where it awaited the northeast monsoon.[ More prayers and sacrifices were conducted for the goddess Tianfei by the crew during the wait.][ Afterwards, the fleet departed via the Wuhumen.][.]
The treasure fleet sailed to Champa
Champa (Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ; km, ចាម្ប៉ា; vi, Chiêm Thành or ) were a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is contemporary central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd cen ...
,[.] Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
,[.] Malacca
Malacca ( ms, Melaka) is a state in Malaysia located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, next to the Strait of Malacca. Its capital is Malacca City, dubbed the Historic City, which has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site si ...
,[ Aru,][ ]Semudera
The Samudera Pasai Sultanate (), also known as Samudera or Pasai or Samudera Darussalam or Pacem, was a Muslim harbour kingdom on the north coast of Sumatra from the 13th to the 16th centuries CE. The kingdom was believed to have been founded ...
,[ Lambri,][ ]Ceylon
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
,[ ]Quilon
Kollam (), also known by its former name Quilon , is an ancient seaport and city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is north of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram. The city ...
,[ and ]Calicut
Kozhikode (), also known in English as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. It has a corporation limit population of 609,224 and a metropolitan population of more than 2 million, making it the second la ...
.[.] From Lambri, the treasure fleet sailed straight through the Indian Ocean instead of following the Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, bounded on the west and northwest by India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on the east by Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Its southern limit is a line between ...
coastline to Ceylon.[ Three days after the departure from Lambri, a ship split off and went to the ]Andaman and Nicobar Islands
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is a union territory of India consisting of 572 islands, of which 37 are inhabited, at the junction of the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The territory is about north of Aceh in Indonesia and separated f ...
.[ After six days from the separation, the treasure fleet saw the mountains of Ceylon and arrived at Ceylon's western coast two days later.][ They left this region as they were met with hostility from the local ruler Alagakkonara. Dreyer (2007) states that it is possible that Zheng made port at Quilon—although there is no account confirming this—because the King of Quilon traveled with the fleet to China in 1407.][ Mills (1970) states that the fleet may have made a four-month stay at Calicut from December to April 1407.][ Around Cape Comorin at the southern tip of the ]Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
, the treasure fleet changed direction and began its return journey to China.[.] During the return, the fleet stopped at Malacca again.[.]
During the return trip in 1407, Zheng and his associates engaged Chen Zuyi and his pirate fleet in battle at Palembang.[ Chen had seized Palembang][ and dominated the maritime route along the Malaccan Strait.][ The battle concluded with the defeat of Chen's pirate fleet by the Chinese fleet.][.] He and his lieutenants were executed on 2 October 1407 when the fleet returned to Nanjing.[.] The Ming court appointed Shi Jinqing as the Pacification Superintendent of Palembang, establishing an ally at Palembang and securing access to its port.[.]
The fleet returned to Nanjing on 2 October 1407.[.] After accompanying the treasure fleet during the return journey, the foreign envoys (from Calicut, Quilon, Semudera, Aru, Malacca, and other unspecified nations) visited the Ming court to pay homage and present tribute with their local products. The Yongle Emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites, whose duties included the protocol concerning foreign ambassadors, to prepare gifts for the foreign kings who had sent envoys to the court.[
]
Second voyage
The imperial order for the second voyage was issued in October 1407.[ The edict was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian ().][ Lang Ying's () records that Zheng, Wang, and Hou were dispatched in 1407.][.] The records that Zheng and others went as envoys to the countries of Calicut, Malacca, Semudera, Aru, , Java, Siam
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 mi ...
, Champa, Cochin
Kochi (), also known as Cochin ( ) ( the official name until 1996) is a major port city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of K ...
, , Quilon, Lambri, and .[
On 30 October 1407, a grand director was dispatched with a squadron to Champa before Zheng followed with the main body of the fleet. The fleet departed in the fifth year of the Yongle reign (late 1407 or possibly early 1408).] The fleet traveled from Nanjing to Liujiagang to Changle. Then it sailed to Champa; Siam; Java; Malacca; Semudera, Aru, and Lambri on Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
; , Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut in India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
. Dreyer (2007) states that it is possible that Siam and Java were visited by the main fleet or by detached squadrons before regrouping at Malacca. During this voyage, Zheng and his fleet did not land on Ceylon.[.] The fleet was tasked to carry out the formal investiture of Mana Vikraan as the King of Calicut.[.] A tablet was placed in Calicut to commemorate the relationship between China and India.
In this voyage, the Chinese forcibly settled the enmity between Ming China and Java.[ In a civil war on Java between 1401 and 1406, the King of West Java killed 170 members of a Chinese embassy who had come ashore in his rival's territory at East Java.][ The entry dated to 23 October 1407 in the '']Ming Shilu
The ''Ming Shilu'' () contains the imperial annals of the emperors of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). It is the single largest historical source for the dynasty. According to modern historians, it "plays an extremely important role in the histo ...
'' states that the Western King of Java had sent an envoy to the Ming court to admit his guilt for mistakenly killing 170 Ming troops who had gone ashore to trade.[ It further states that the Ming court responded by demanding 60,000 '' liang'' of gold for compensation and atonement, warning that they would dispatch an army to punish the Javanese ruler for his crime if he failed to comply and stating that the situation in Annam (referring to Ming China's successful invasion of Vietnam) could serve as an example.][.] The Chinese accepted the payment and apology, and restored diplomatic relations.[ Yan Congjian's notes that the emperor later forgave 50,000 of gold that was still owed from this as long as the western ruler was remorseful for his crime.][ Tan (2005) remarks that Zheng had submitted the case of the killings to the emperor for a decision, rather than undertake a military invasion in revenge, as the killings were not willful.][.] The Chinese would use further voyages to keep surveillance over Java.[.]
During the journey, as recorded by Fei Xin
Fei Xin (; - after 1436) was a member of the military personnel of the fleet of the Ming dynasty admiral Zheng He, known as the author of a book about the countries visited by Chinese ships.
Biography
Little is known about Fei Xin's life. His ...
, the fleet visited the Pulau Sembilan in the Strait of Malacca
The Strait of Malacca is a narrow stretch of water, 500 mi (800 km) long and from 40 to 155 mi (65–250 km) wide, between the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia) to the northeast and the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southwest, connec ...
in the seventh year of the Yongle reign (1409).[ Dreyer (2007) concludes that the stop was made during the return journey of the second voyage as the treasure fleet did not leave the Chinese coast for the third voyage until early 1410.][ Fei wrote that "In the seventh year of Yongle, Zheng He and his associates sent government troops onto the island to cut incense. They obtained six logs, each eight or nine in diameter and six or seven in length, whose aroma was pure and far-ranging. The pattern ]f the wood
F, or f, is the sixth Letter (alphabet), letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the English alphabet, modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is English alphabet#Let ...
was black, with fine lines. The people of the island opened their eyes wide and stuck out their tongues in astonishment, and were told that 'We are the soldiers of the Heavenly Court, and our awe-inspiring power is like that of the gods.'" The treasure fleet returned to Nanjing in the summer of 1409.[
The confusion of whether Zheng undertook the second voyage stems from the fact that a Chinese envoy was dispatched before he had departed with the main body of the fleet.][ The imperial edict for the third voyage was issued during the second voyage while the treasure fleet was still in the Indian Ocean, so Zheng was either absent when the court issued the imperial order or he had not accompanied the fleet during the second voyage.][ On 21 January 1409, a grand ceremony was held in the honor of the goddess Tianfei, where she received a new title.][ Duyvendak (1938) thinks that Zheng could not have been on the second voyage, because the ceremony's importance required Zheng's attendance.][ Mills (1970), citing Duyvendak (1938), also states that he did not accompany the fleet for this voyage.][.] However, Dreyer (2007) states that it is strongly suggested that Zheng had been on the second voyage, as Fei's account about the 1409 visit to Pulau Sembilan explicitly mentions him.
Third voyage
The imperial order for the third voyage was issued in the first month of the seventh year of the Yongle reign (16 January to 14 February 1409).[.][ It was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian.][.]
Zheng embarked on the voyage in 1409.[ The fleet departed from Liujiagang in the ninth month (9 October to 6 November 1409) and arrived at Changle the following month (7 November to 6 December).][.][.] They left Changle in the twelfth month (5 January to 3 February 1410).[ They proceeded via the Wuhumen.][ The fleet made stops at Champa, Java, Malacca, Semudera, Ceylon, Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut.][.] They traveled to Champa within 10 days.[ Wang and Hou made short detours at Siam, Malacca, Semudera, and Ceylon.][ The treasure fleet landed at ]Galle
Galle ( si, ගාල්ල, translit=Gālla; ta, காலி, translit=Kāli) (formerly Point de Galle) is a major city in Sri Lanka, situated on the southwestern tip, from Colombo. Galle is the provincial capital and largest city of Souther ...
, Ceylon, in 1410.[
During the homeward journey in 1411, the treasure fleet confronted King Alakeshvara (Alagakkonara) of Ceylon.][.] Alakeshvara posed a threat to the countries and local waters of Ceylon and southern India.[.] When the Chinese arrived at Ceylon, they were overbearing and contemptuous of the Sinhalese, whom they considered rude, disrespectful, and hostile.[ They also resented the Sinhalese for attacking and committing piracy against neighboring countries that had diplomatic relations with Ming China.][ Zheng and 2,000 troops traveled overland into Kotte, because Alakeshvara had lured them into his territory.][.] The king separated Zheng and his men from the treasure fleet anchored at Colombo,[ while he planned a surprise attack on the fleet.][ In response, Zheng and his troops invaded Kotte and captured its capital.][ The Sinhalese army, recorded to have over 50,000 troops, hastily returned and surrounded the capital, but were repeatedly defeated in battle by the invading Chinese troops.][ They took captive Alakeshvara, his family, and principal officials.][.]
Zheng returned to Nanjing on 6 July 1411.[ He presented the Sinhalese captives to the Yongle Emperor,][ who decided to free and return them to their country.][ The Chinese dethroned Alakeshvara in favor of their ally ]Parakramabahu VI
Parâkramabâhu VI (1410/1412/1415–1467) was a king in the Sri Lankan kingdom of Kotte. He is the last great king in Sri Lanka who managed to unite the island under one flag. His rule is famous for the political stability which he maintained i ...
as the king with Zheng and his fleet supporting him. From then on, the treasure fleet did not experience hostilities during visits to Ceylon.[
]
Fourth voyage
On 18 December 1412, the Yongle Emperor issued the order for the fourth voyage.[.][.] Zheng He and others were commanded to lead it.[
The emperor attended an archery contest for the Midsummer Festival of 1413 (5th day, 5th month, 11th year) that all the Chinese officials and foreign envoys were invited to.][ Duyvendak (1939) states that these envoys were so numerous that they most-likely comprised many of those whom Zheng escorted back to their countries during the fourth voyage rather than just close neighbors.][.] This expedition led the treasure fleet into Muslim countries, so it must have been important for the Chinese to seek out reliable interpreters.[ The interpreter ]Ma Huan
Ma Huan (, Xiao'erjing: ) (c. 1380–1460), courtesy name Zongdao (), pen name Mountain-woodcutter (會稽山樵), was a Chinese voyager and translator who accompanied Admiral Zheng He on three of his seven expeditions to the Western Oceans. Ma ...
joined the voyages for the first time.[ A 1523 inscription at a Muslim mosque in ]Xi'an
Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by #Name, other names, is the list of capitals in China, capital of Shaanxi, Shaanxi Province. A Sub-provincial division#Sub-provincial municipalities, sub-provincial city o ...
records that, on the 4th month of the 11th year, Zheng was there to seek reliable interpreters and found a man named Hasan.[.]
Zheng's fleet left Nanjing in 1413, probably in the autumn.[.] It set sail from Fujian in the 12th month of the 11th year in the Yongle reign (23 December 1413 to 21 January 1414).[ Calicut was the westernmost destination during the previous voyages, but the fleet sailed beyond it this time.][ The records Malacca, Java, Champa, Semudera, Aru, Cochin, Calicut, Lambri, ]Pahang
Pahang (;Jawi alphabet, Jawi: , Pahang Hulu Malay: ''Paha'', Pahang Hilir Malay: ''Pahaeng'', Ulu Tembeling Malay: ''Pahaq)'' officially Pahang Darul Makmur with the Arabic honorific ''Darul Makmur'' (Jawi: , "The Abode of Tranquility") is a ...
, Kelantan
Kelantan (; Jawi: ; Kelantanese Malay: ''Klate'') is a state in Malaysia. The capital is Kota Bharu and royal seat is Kubang Kerian. The honorific name of the state is ''Darul Naim'' (Jawi: ; "The Blissful Abode").
Kelantan is located in the ...
, , Hormuz, , Maldives, and as stops for this voyage.[
The fleet sailed to Champa,][ Kelatan,][ Pahang,][ Malacca,][ Palembang,][ Java,][ Lambri,][ Lide,][ Aru,][ Semudera,][.][ Ceylon,][ (opposite Ceylon),][ Cochin;][ and Calicut.][ They proceeded to (]Maldive
Maldives (, ; dv, ދިވެހިރާއްޖެ, translit=Dhivehi Raajje, ), officially the Republic of Maldives ( dv, ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭގެ ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ, translit=Dhivehi Raajjeyge Jumhooriyyaa, label=none, ), is an archipelag ...
and Laccadive Islands
The Laccadive or Cannanore Islands are one of the three island subgroups in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep, India. It is the central subgroup of the Lakshadweep, separated from the Amindivi Islands subgroup roughly by the 11th parallel ...
),[ ( Bitra Atoll),][ ( Chetlat Atoll),][ and Hormuz.][.] At Java, the fleet delivered gifts and favors from the Yongle Emperor.[ In return, a Javanese envoy arrived in China on 29 April 1415 and presented tribute in the form of "western horses" and local products while expressing gratitude.][
In 1415, the fleet made a stop at northern Sumatra during the journey homeward.][.] In this region, Sekandar had usurped the Semudera throne from Zain al-'Abidin,[ but the Chinese had formally recognized the latter as the King of Semudera.][ In contrast, Sekandar, an autonomous ruler, was not recognized by the Chinese.][ Zheng was ordered to launch a punitive attack against the usurper and restore Zain al-'Abidin as the rightful king.][ Sekandar led his forces, reportedly "tens of thousands" of soldiers, against the Ming forces, but was defeated.][ He reportedly attacked with "tens of thousands" of soldiers.][ The Ming forces pursued Sekandar's forces to Lambri where they captured Sekandar, his wife, and his child.][ King Zain al-'Abidin later dispatched a tribute mission to express his gratefulness.][ This conflict reaffirmed Chinese power over the foreign states and the maritime route by protecting the local political authority that sheltered the trade.][ Sekandar was presented to the Yongle Emperor at the palace gate and later executed.][ It is not known when this execution happened, but Ma states that Sekandar was publicly executed in the capital after the fleet returned.][ Fei Xin describes Sekandar as a false king who robbed, stole, and usurped the throne of Semudera, Ma Huan portrays him as someone who attempted to overthrow the ruler, and the ''Ming Shilu'' records that Sekandar was the younger brother of the former king and plotted to kill the ruler.][.]
On 12 August 1415, Zheng's fleet returned to Nanjing from this voyage.[.] The Yongle Emperor had been absent since 16 March 1413 for his second Mongol campaign and had not returned when the fleet arrived.[ After the fleet's return, envoys bearing tribute from 18 countries were sent to the Ming court.][
]
Fifth voyage
On 14 November 1416, the Yongle Emperor returned to Nanjing.[ On 19 November, a grand ceremony was held where he bestowed gifts to princes, civil officials, military officers, and the ambassadors of 18 countries.][.] On 19 December, the 18 ambassadors were received at the Ming court.[ On 28 December, they visited the Ming court to take their leave and were bestowed robes before departure.][ That day, the emperor ordered the undertaking of the fifth voyage,][.] the aim of which was to return the 18 ambassadors and to reward their kings.[
Zheng He and others received orders to escort the ambassadors back home.][ They carried imperial letters and gifts for several kings.][ The King of Cochin received special treatment because he had sent tribute since 1411 and later also sent ambassadors to request the patent of investiture and a seal.][ The Yongle Emperor granted him both requests, conferred to him a long inscription (allegedly composed by the emperor himself), and gave the title "State Protecting Mountain" to a hill in Cochin.][
Zheng may have left the Chinese coast in the autumn of 1417.][.] He first made port at Quanzhou to load up the fleet's cargo holds with porcelain
Porcelain () is a ceramic material made by heating substances, generally including materials such as kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures between . The strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainl ...
and other goods. Archaeological finds of contemporary Chinese porcelain have been excavated at the East African places visited by Zheng's fleet.[ A Ming tablet at Quanzhou commemorates Zheng burning incense for divine protection for the voyage on 31 May 1417.][.][.] The fleet visited Champa, Pahang, Java, Palembang, Malacca, Semudera, Lambri, Ceylon, Cochin, Calicut, (possibly Cannanore
Kannur (), formerly known in English as Cannanore, is a Cities in India, city and a municipal corporation in the state of Kerala, India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Kannur district and situated north of the major port city a ...
), (Maladive and Laccadive Islands), Hormuz, , Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
, Mogadishu
Mogadishu (, also ; so, Muqdisho or ; ar, مقديشو ; it, Mogadiscio ), locally known as Xamar or Hamar, is the capital and List of cities in Somalia by population, most populous city of Somalia. The city has served as an important port ...
, Brava
Brava or La Brava may refer to:
Geography
*Brava, Cape Verde, a volcanic island
*Brava, Costa Rica, an island of Costa Rica (Isla Brava)
*Costa Brava, a coastal area Mediterranean of northeast Spain
* Barawa, a town in Somalia commonly known as ' ...
, , and Malindi
Malindi is a town on Malindi Bay at the mouth of the Sabaki River, lying on the Indian Ocean coast of Kenya. It is 120 kilometres northeast of Mombasa. The population of Malindi was 119,859 as of the 2019 census. It is the largest urban cent ...
. For Arabia and East Africa, the most likely route was Hormuz, , Aden, Mogadishu, Brava, , and then Malindi.[.] The reports that Chinese ships reached the Aden coast in January 1419 and did not leave the Rasulid
The Rasulids ( ar, بنو رسول, Banū Rasūl) were a Sunni Muslim dynasty who ruled Yemen from 1229 to 1454.
History
Origin of the Rasulids
The Rasulids took their name from al-Amin's nickname "Rasul". The Zaidi Shi'i Imams of Yemen we ...
capital at Ta'izz
Taiz ( ar, تَعِزّ, Taʿizz) is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni Highlands, near the port city of Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. With a populat ...
before 19 March. The Rasulids, anxious for protection against the Mamluk Sultanate
The Mamluk Sultanate ( ar, سلطنة المماليك, translit=Salṭanat al-Mamālīk), also known as Mamluk Egypt or the Mamluk Empire, was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) from the mid-13th to early 16th ...
of Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
, submitted to the Ming and sent tribute missions.
On 8 August 1419, the fleet had returned to China. The Yongle Emperor was in Beijing but ordered the Ministry of Rites to give monetary rewards to the fleet's personnel. The accompanying ambassadors were received at the Ming court in the eighth lunar month (21 August to 19 September) of 1419.[ Their tribute included lions, leopards, dromedary camels, ostriches, zebras, rhinoceroses, antelopes, giraffes, and other exotic animals.][ The arrival of the various animals brought by foreign ambassadors caused sensation at the Ming court.][
]
Sixth voyage
The 's 3 March 1421 entry notes that the envoys of sixteen countries (Hormuz and other countries) were given gifts of paper money, coin money, ceremonial robes, and linings before the treasure fleet escorted them back to their countries.[.] The imperial order for the sixth voyage was dated 3 March 1421.[.] Zheng He was dispatched with imperial letters, silk brocade, silk floss, silk gauze, and other gifts for the rulers of these countries.[
]Gong Zhen Gong Zhen () was a fifteenth-century translator and writer famous for his association with the Chinese admiral Zheng He.
Life
Born near Nanjing in present-day Jiangsu Province during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Gong Zhen's dates of birth and de ...
's records a 10 November 1421 imperial edict instructing Zheng He, Kong He (), Zhu Buhua (), and Tang Guanbao () to arrange the provisions for Hong Bao
Hong Bao (; '' fl.'' ''ca.'' 1412–1433) was a Chinese eunuch sent on overseas diplomatic missions during the reigns of the Yongle Emperor and Xuande Emperor in the Ming dynasty. He is best known as the commander of one of the detached squadron ...
and others' escort of foreign envoys to their countries.[.] The envoys of the 16 different states were escorted to their homelands by the treasure fleet.[ It is likely that the first few destinations were Malacca and the three Sumatran states of Lambri, Aru, and Semudera.][ The fleet was divided into several detached squadrons at Semudera.][.] All the squadrons proceeded to Ceylon, whereafter they separated for , Cochin, , or Calicut in southern India.[ The squadrons traveled from there to their respective destinations at (Maldive and Laccadive Islands), Hormuz at the Persian Gulf, the three Arabian states of ]Dhofar
The Dhofar Governorate ( ar, مُحَافَظَة ظُفَار, Muḥāfaẓat Ẓufār) is the largest of the 11 Governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah G ...
, , and Aden, and the two African states of Mogadishu and Brava.[ The eunuch Zhou (probably ]Zhou Man
Zhou Man (), was a 15th-century Chinese admiral and explorer. He was born into a wealthy merchant family in the year 1378. When he was six years old, his father died on an overseas voyage to Korea. Mourning his father's death, he left his mother ...
) led a detached squadron to Aden.[ Ma Huan mentions Zhou Man and Li Xing in connection to the visit of Aden.][.] Their squadron may have also visited and Dhofar.[ According to the , Zheng personally visited as an envoy in 1421.][ Of the twelve visited nations west of Sumatra, this was the only one explicitly reported to have been visited by Zheng himself.][ Even though Quilon was not visited, the squadron for Mogadishu probably separated near Quilon as a navigation point while the main fleet continued to Calicut.][ A large squadron proceeded further from Calicut to Hormuz.][ They may have traveled via the Laccadives.][.]
Upon return, several squadrons regrouped at Calicut and all the squadrons regrouped further at Semudera.[ Siam was likely visited during the return journey.][ The fleet returned on 3 September 1422.][.] They brought with them envoys from Siam, Semudera, Aden, and other countries, who bore tribute in local products.[ The foreign envoys, who traveled to China with the fleet, proceeded overland or via the Grand Canal before reaching the imperial court at Beijing in 1423.]
Nanjing garrison
On 14 May 1421, the Yongle Emperor ordered the temporary suspension of the voyages.[.] At the expense of the treasure fleet's voyages, imperial attention and funding was diverted to the third, fourth, and fifth Mongol campaigns. Between 1422 and 1431, the treasure fleet remained in Nanjing to serve in the city's garrison.[.]
In 1424, Zheng He departed on a diplomatic mission to Palembang.[.] Meanwhile, Zhu Gaozhi ascended the throne as the Hongxi Emperor
The Hongxi Emperor (16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425), personal name Zhu Gaochi (朱高熾), was the fourth Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1424 to 1425. He succeeded his father, the Yongle Emperor, in 1424. His era name "Hongxi" means ...
on 7 September 1424 following the death of his father, the Yongle Emperor, on 12 August 1424.[.][ Zheng returned from Palembang after this death.][
The Hongxi Emperor was hostile to the undertaking of the treasure voyages.][ On 7 September 1424, he terminated further treasure voyages.][.] He kept the treasure fleet, which retained its original designation , as a part of Nanjing's garrison.[.] On 24 February 1425, he appointed Zheng as the defender of Nanjing and ordered him to continue his command over the treasure fleet for the city's defense.[.] The Hongxi Emperor
The Hongxi Emperor (16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425), personal name Zhu Gaochi (朱高熾), was the fourth Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1424 to 1425. He succeeded his father, the Yongle Emperor, in 1424. His era name "Hongxi" means ...
died on 29 May 1425 and was succeeded by his son as the Xuande Emperor
The Xuande Emperor (16 March 1399 31 January 1435), personal name Zhu Zhanji (朱瞻基), was the fifth Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1425 to 1435. His era name "Xuande" means "proclamation of virtue". Ruling over a relatively ...
.
On 25 March 1428, the Xuande Emperor ordered Zheng and others to supervise the rebuilding and repair of the Great Bao'en Temple at Nanjing. The temple was completed in 1431. It is possible that the funds to build it were diverted from the treasure voyages.
Seventh voyage
Gong Zhen records that an imperial order was issued on 25 May 1430 for the arrangement of necessary provisions for the dispatch of Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, Li Xing, Zhu Liang, Yang Zhen, Hong Bao, and others on official business to the countries of the Western Ocean.[ It was addressed to Yang Qing (), Luo Zhi (), Tang Guanbo (), and Yuan Cheng ().][ On 29 June 1430, the Xuande Emperor issued his orders for the seventh voyage.][.][.] It was addressed to Zheng and others.[ The reports that Zheng, Wang, and others were sent to distant foreign lands to bring them into deference and submission.][ The emperor wished to reinvigorate the tributary relations that were promoted during the Yongle reign.][ Before departing for the seventh voyage, Zheng and his associates had the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions inscribed.][
The provides information about the dates and itinerary for this voyage. On 19 January 1431, the fleet embarked from Longwan (lit. "dragon bay") in Nanjing.][.][.] On 23 January, they came to (an unidentified island in the Yangtze
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains (Tibetan Plateau) and flows ...
) where they went hunting.[ On 2 February, they passed through the Fuzi Passage (present-day Baimaosha Channel).][ They arrived at Liujiagang on 3 February.][ They arrived at Changle on 8 April.][ They went to Fu Tou Shan (possibly near ]Fuzhou
Fuzhou (; , Fuzhounese: Hokchew, ''Hók-ciŭ''), alternately romanized as Foochow, is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian province, China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute t ...
) on 16 December.[ On 12 January 1432, they passed through the Wuhumen (in the entrance to the Min River).][ They arrived at ]Vijaya
Vijaya may refer to:
Places
* Vijaya (Champa), a city-state and former capital of the historic Champa in what is now Vietnam
* Vijayawada, a city in Andhra Pradesh, India
People
* Prince Vijaya of Sri Lanka (fl. 543–505 BC), earliest recorde ...
(near present-day Qui Nhon
Quy Nhon ( vi, Quy Nhơn ) is a coastal city in Bình Định province in central Vietnam. It is composed of 16 wards and five communes with a total of . Quy Nhon is the capital of Bình Định province. As of 2019 its population was 457,400. H ...
) in Champa on 27 January and departed from there on 12 February.[ They arrived at ]Surabaya
Surabaya ( jv, ꦱꦸꦫꦧꦪ or jv, ꦯꦹꦫꦨꦪ; ; ) is the capital city of the Provinces of Indonesia, Indonesian province of East Java and the List of Indonesian cities by population, second-largest city in Indonesia, after Jakarta. L ...
in Java on 7 March and departed from there on 13 July.[.] The fleet arrived at Palembang on 24 July and departed from there on 27 July.[.] They arrived at Malacca on 3 August and departed from there on 2 September.[.] They arrived at Semudera on 12 September and departed from there on 2 November.[ They arrived at ]Beruwala
Beruwala ( Sinhala:බේරුවල Tamil: பேருவளை) is a large town in Kalutara District, Western Province, Sri Lanka, governed by an Urban Council. The town covers a total area of approximately and is located on the south-west ...
in Ceylon on 28 November and departed from there on 2 December.[ They arrived at Calicut on 10 December and departed from there on 14 December.][ They arrived at Hormuz on 17 January 1433 and departed from there on 9 March.][.]
Hormuz was furthest west of the eight destinations recorded for the seventh voyage in the .[ The and other sources describe the voyage with the fleet visiting at least seventeen countries (including those already mentioned in the ).][.] The additional destinations reported in the are , Bengal
Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
, Laccadive and Maldive island chains, Dhofar, , Aden, Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
, Mogadishu, and Brava.[.] Gong recorded a total of 20 visited countries.[ Fei Xin mentions that the fleet stopped at the Andaman and Nicobar island chains during the voyage.][.] He writes that, on 14 November 1432, the fleet arrived at (probably the Great Nicobar Island
Great Nicobar is the southernmost and largest of the Nicobar Islands of India, north of Sumatra.
History
The Nicobar Island has been well known to Indian mariners since the time of the seafaring Cholas https://www.britannica.com/place/Nicobar- ...
) where it anchored for three days due to the unfavorable winds and waves.[.] He further writes that the native men and women came in log boats to trade coconuts.[ The neighboring Aru, Nagur, Lide, and Lambri were certainly visited by a few ships, according to Dreyer (2007), on the way to Semudera in northern Sumatra.][
Zheng is mentioned in the in connection to the visits of ,][.] ,[ Djorfar,][ Mogadishu,]