Translational neuroscience is the field of study which applies

neuroscience Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system (the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system), its functions and disorders. It is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developme ...

research to translate or develop into clinical applications and novel therapies for nervous system disorders. The field encompasses areas such as

deep brain stimulation Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a neurosurgical procedure involving the placement of a medical device called a neurostimulator, which sends electrical impulses, through implanted electrodes, to specific targets in the brain (the brain nucleus ...

, brain machine interfaces,

neurorehabilitation Neurorehabilitation is a complex medical process which aims to aid recovery from a nervous system injury, and to minimize and/or compensate for any functional alterations resulting from it. Features In case of a serious disability, such as caused ...

and the development of devices for the sensory nervous system such as the use of auditory implants,

retinal implant Retinal prostheses for restoration of sight to patients blinded by retinal degeneration are being developed by a number of private companies and research institutions worldwide. The system is meant to partially restore useful vision to people who ...

s, and

electronic skin Electronic skin refers to flexible, stretchable and self-healing electronics that are able to mimic functionalities of human or animal skin. The broad class of materials often contain sensing abilities that are intended to reproduce the capabilitie ...

Classification

Translational neuroscience research is categorized into stages of research, which are classified using a five tier system (T0-T4), beginning with basic science research and ending with the public health applications of basic scientific discoveries. While once considered a linear progression from basic science to public health application, translational research, and translational neuroscience in particular, is now regarded as a cyclic, where public health needs inform basic science research, which then works to discover the mechanisms of public health issues and works towards clinical and public health implementation. The stages of translational neuroscience research are as follows: * T0: Basic science research * T1:

Preclinical research In drug development, preclinical development, also termed preclinical studies or nonclinical studies, is a stage of research that begins before clinical trials (testing in humans) and during which important feasibility, iterative testing and drug ...

* T2:

Clinical research Clinical research is a branch of healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness ( efficacy) of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatm ...

Clinical neuroscience Clinical neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience that focuses on the scientific study of fundamental mechanisms that underlie diseases and disorders of the brain and central nervous system. It seeks to develop new ways of conceptualizing and dia ...

* T3: Clinical implementation * T4:

Public health Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the det ...

Methods

Electrophysiology

Electrophysiology Electrophysiology (from Ancient Greek, Greek , ''ēlektron'', "amber" ee the Electron#Etymology, etymology of "electron" , ''physis'', "nature, origin"; and , ''-logy, -logia'') is the branch of physiology that studies the electrical propertie ...

is used within translational neuroscience as a means of studying the electric properties of neurons in animal models as well as to investigate the properties of human neurological dysfunction. Techniques used in animal models, such as patch-clamp recordings, have been used to investigate how neurons respond to pharmacological agents. Electroencephalography (EEG) and

magnetoencephalography Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents occurring naturally in the brain, using very sensitive magnetometers. Arrays of SQUIDs (s ...

(MEG) are both used to measure electrical activity in the human brain, and can be used in clinical settings to localize the source of neurological dysfunction in conditions such as

epilepsy Epilepsy is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrica ...

, and can also be used in a research setting to investigate the differences in electrical activity in the brain between normal and neurologically dysfunctional individuals.

Neuroimaging

Neuroimaging Neuroimaging is the use of quantitative (computational) techniques to study the structure and function of the central nervous system, developed as an objective way of scientifically studying the healthy human brain in a non-invasive manner. Incr ...

comprises a variety of techniques used to observe the activity or the structures of, or within, the nervous system. Positron emission tomography (PET) has been used in animal models, such as non-human primate and rodent, to identify and target molecular mechanisms of neurological disease, and to study the neurological impact of pharmacological drug addiction. Similarly, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been used to investigate the neurological mechanisms of pharmacological drug addiction, the neurological mechanisms of mood and

anxiety disorders Anxiety disorders are a cluster of mental disorders characterized by significant and uncontrollable feelings of anxiety and fear such that a person's social, occupational, and personal function are significantly impaired. Anxiety may cause physi ...

in elderly populations, and the neurological mechanisms of disorders such as

schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social wit ...

Gene therapy

Gene therapy Gene therapy is a medical field which focuses on the genetic modification of cells to produce a therapeutic effect or the treatment of disease by repairing or reconstructing defective genetic material. The first attempt at modifying human DN ...

is the delivery of nucleic acid as a treatment for a disorder. In translational neuroscience, gene therapy is the delivery of nucleic acid as a treatment for a neurological disorder. Gene therapy has been proven effective at treating a variety of disorders, including

neurodegenerative disorders A neurodegenerative disease is caused by the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, in the process known as neurodegeneration. Such neuronal damage may ultimately involve cell death. Neurodegenerative diseases include amyotrophic ...

such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD), in rodent and non-human primate models, and in humans, via the application of

neurotrophic factors Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) are a family of biomolecules – nearly all of which are peptides or small proteins – that support the growth, survival, and differentiation of both developing and mature neurons. Most NTFs exert their trop ...

, such as nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), and via the application of enzymes such as glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), which commonly use adeno-associated viruses (AAV) as a vector.

Stem cells

Stem cells In multicellular organisms, stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. They are the earliest type of ...

, particularly induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), are utilized in translational neuroscience research as not only a treatment for nervous system disorders, but also as the source for models of neural dysfunction. For example, due to the central nervous system's limited regenerative abilities, human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), a type of pluripotent stem cell, has been used as a replacement for damaged neurons, a novel approach that involves the surgical transplantation of fetal stem cells

Applications

Neurodevelopmental disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of disorders that affect the development of the nervous system, leading to abnormal brain function which may affect emotion, learning ability, self-control, and memory. The effects of neurodevelopmental ...

are characterized as disorders where the development of the nervous system was disrupted, and encompasses disorders such as

learning disabilities Learning disability, learning disorder, or learning difficulty (British English) is a condition in the brain that causes difficulties comprehending or processing information and can be caused by several different factors. Given the "difficult ...

, autism spectrum disorders (ASD), epilepsy, and certain

neuromuscular disorders A neuromuscular disease is any disease affecting the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the neuromuscular junction, or skeletal muscle, all of which are components of the motor unit. Damage to any of these structures can cause muscle atrophy and ...

. Translational neuroscience research involves efforts to uncover the molecular mechanisms for these disorders and work towards cures in patient populations. Additionally, translational neuroscience research has focused on elucidating the cause of neurodevelopmental disorders, whether it be genetic, environmental, or a combination of both, as well as tactics for prevention, if possible.

Neurodegenerative disorders

Neurodegenerative disorders A neurodegenerative disease is caused by the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, in the process known as neurodegeneration. Such neuronal damage may ultimately involve cell death. Neurodegenerative diseases include amyotrophic ...

are a result of neuronal loss of function over time which lead to cell death. Examples of neurodegenerative disorders include Alzheimer's disease,

Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease (PD), or simply Parkinson's, is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the motor system. The symptoms usually emerge slowly, and as the disease worsens, non-motor symptoms becom ...

, and

Huntington's disease Huntington's disease (HD), also known as Huntington's chorea, is a neurodegenerative disease that is mostly inherited. The earliest symptoms are often subtle problems with mood or mental abilities. A general lack of coordination and an uns ...

. The focus of translational neuroscience research is to investigate the molecular mechanisms for these disorders, and to investigate the mechanisms of drug delivery to treat these disorders, including an investigation into the impact of the blood-brain barrier on drug delivery, and the role of the body's

immune system The immune system is a network of biological processes that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splint ...

in neurodegenerative disorders.

References

{{Reflist Clinical neuroscience