The term transformation (also "transition" or "system change") in the field of
mediated cross-border communication refers to a media system's change from for instance
authoritarian or
communist structures to a new media system with different
structures and control mechanisms.
[Hadamik (2004), p. 9.]
Compared to the studies of media systems, transformation research is focused on the
collective and
individual actors who "demand, support, and manage change". They can be found in
government
A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state.
In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is ...
s,
parties
A party is a gathering of people who have been invited by a host for the purposes of socializing, conversation, recreation, or as part of a festival or other commemoration or celebration of a special occasion. A party will often feature ...
,
NGOs
A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation (see spelling differences) is an organization that generally is formed independent from government. They are typically nonprofit entities, and many of them are active in ...
, civil society organizations or
interest groups. To the largest extent, transformation research addresses change from
authoritarian to
democratic media systems. Since transformation processes in media systems are always linked to the political and
socioeconomic development
Socioeconomics (also known as social economics) is the social science that studies how economic activity affects and is shaped by social processes. In general it analyzes how modern societies progress, stagnate, or regress because of their local ...
, transformation research is not solely focused on the transformation of the media systems, but also on sectors like
politics
Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that stud ...
,
economy
An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...
,
society
A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Soci ...
, or
culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups ...
.
Transformation research is a comparative approach, since processes in different stages of the
political
Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that stud ...
or media system are compared. The approach is highly complex, because it combines comparison with the dimension of space and time, for instance by analyzing similar change processes of media systems in different world regions and times in history. This causes problems, because the changing systems can exhibit considerable differences between one another. Although there are differences between them, transformation processes often occur at the same time and significant similarities between the resulting patterns can be observed.
Interrelation between transformation processes of political and media systems
The transformation research on media systems has its origin in transformation studies of
political science
Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated constitutions and la ...
s. Fragments of
political science
Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated constitutions and la ...
theories were applied in comparative
media studies, since transformation processes of media systems are strongly connected to the transformation of
political systems. Katharina Hadamik (2003) describes this connection as "political-medial transformation-parallelism". She stresses that the media system in a
state
State may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Literature
* ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State
* ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States
* ''Our S ...
cannot take any path of transformation. It is connected to the transformation of the
political system. For instance,
states which develop democratic structures and
constitution
A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.
When these princ ...
al conditions in their
political system also build out free or relatively free media systems. In contrast, media systems in
states with weaker or even no transformation of the
political system have much higher barriers of development to overcome. So, "it is the political system that ultimately has the power to make binding decisions and thus shapes the basic structure and functioning of the media system".
[Voltmer (2012), p. 240.] This strong connection between
political
Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that stud ...
and media system can be emphasized by watching the process of transformation from an
authoritarian to a
democratic system in both
politics
Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that stud ...
and
media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass e ...
.
The transformation from an
authoritarian to a
democratic political system has three phases:
Phase 1: end of the old
authoritarian regime
In politics, a regime (also "régime") is the form of government or the set of rules, cultural or social norms, etc. that regulate the operation of a government or institution and its interactions with society. According to Yale professor Juan Jo ...
Phase 2: transformation and
institutionalisation
In sociology, institutionalisation (or institutionalization) is the process of embedding some conception (for example a belief, norm, social role, particular value or mode of behavior) within an organization, social system, or society as a who ...
of
democracy
Democracy (From grc, δημοκρατία, dēmokratía, ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which people, the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation ("direct democracy"), or to choo ...
Phase 3:
consolidation of democracy through a new system
The process of transformation from an
authoritarian to a
democratic media system also has three phases, similar to the phases of transformation in
political systems:
Phase 1: breakthrough in the media sector
Phase 2: fixation of the changes in the
media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass e ...
sector
Phase 3: development of a stable media system
Types of transformation processes
In comparative media system research, scholars have identified three processes of change in media systems: homogenization, heterogenization, and hybridization.
Homogenization towards one model of media systems
In the field of comparative media system research, homogenization is defined as the convergence of many media systems towards one specific model, caused by changes in
political
Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that stud ...
and
economic
An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...
structures, commercialization, and
changes in technology.
Cultural differences between the countries are said to become less important, since a few international
conglomerates dominate the global
media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass e ...
industry. In 2004, the authors Hallin and Mancini attested a convergence of European media systems towards the
Liberal Media System prevalent in North America, the United Kingdom and Ireland. Relating to the convergence of media systems, four constitutive factors can be identified:
* Americanization: The changing
organizational structure
An organizational structure defines how activities such as task allocation, coordination, and supervision are directed toward the achievement of organizational aims.
Organizational structure affects organizational action and provides the foundat ...
s and behaviors within the
media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass e ...
are heading towards patterns first established in the United States. Moreover, the US American model of politically neutral and professional
journalism
Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the " news of the day" and that informs society to at least some degree. The word, a noun, applies to the occupation (pro ...
is becoming more and more influential for other media systems. The journalistic education of the United States has said to have been a strong influence on journalism cultures worldwide.
* Technological change: New
technologies
Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word ''technology'' may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, science, ...
can lead to adaptations by individuals and social
institutions, for instance assuming new communication procedures associated with the new
technology
Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and Reproducibility, reproducible way. The word ''technology'' may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in me ...
. These effects often produce common practices across different
social contexts. The development of professional
journalism
Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the " news of the day" and that informs society to at least some degree. The word, a noun, applies to the occupation (pro ...
is also connected to
technological change
Technological change (TC) or technological development is the overall process of invention, innovation and diffusion of technology or processes.From ''The New Palgrave Dictionary otechnical change by S. Metcalfe. •biased and biased techno ...
.
*
Secularization
In sociology, secularization (or secularisation) is the transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward non-religious values and secular institutions. The ''secularization thesis'' expresses the ...
: The term
secularization
In sociology, secularization (or secularisation) is the transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward non-religious values and secular institutions. The ''secularization thesis'' expresses the ...
describes "the separation of citizens from attachments of religious and ideological 'faiths,' and the decline of institutions based on these faiths". This separation results in a decline of political parties, since they are connected to
ideologies
An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely epistemic, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones." Formerly applied prim ...
and particular social milieus. Hence,
secularization
In sociology, secularization (or secularisation) is the transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward non-religious values and secular institutions. The ''secularization thesis'' expresses the ...
leads media systems towards the
Liberal Model.
* Commercialization: Commercialization can be seen as the most important force of homogenization. It has changed the print
media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass e ...
as well as the electronic
media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass e ...
. The transition of European broadcasting systems, from predominantly public service systems in the 1970s to a system with commercial domination today, gave the strongest impetus for homogenization. Thus, commercialization decreases the ties of media system and
political system.
Although a tendency of homogenization towards the
Liberal Model can be attested, there still are important differences between the systems. First of all, the variations between the
political systems of each country seem to persist in the future. Furthermore, the
party
A party is a gathering of people who have been invited by a host for the purposes of socializing, conversation, recreation, or as part of a festival or other commemoration or celebration of a special occasion. A party will often featur ...
and
electoral systems between the countries remain different. Moreover, the
legal systems
The contemporary national legal systems are generally based on one of four basic systems: civil law, common law, statutory law, religious law or combinations of these. However, the legal system of each country is shaped by its unique history and ...
of the countries are still distinct. Also, even though there is a trend towards neutral journalism,
political parallelism in the national press of
Democratic Corporatist countries still persists and will probably remain in the immediate future. Thus, a complete converge of the media systems seems unlikely.
There are also limits and countertendencies against homogenization. There is evidence of countertendencies relating to the reduction of
political polarization
Political polarization (spelled ''polarisation'' in British English) is the divergence of political attitudes away from the center, towards ideological extremes.
Most discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the ...
and
ideological
An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely epistemic, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones." Formerly applied prim ...
differences between parties. In some countries, new extremist parties on the far right of the political spectrum arose, motivated through issues of
immigration
Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not natives or where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle as permanent residents or naturalized citizens. Commuters, tourists, a ...
,
multiculturalism
The term multiculturalism has a range of meanings within the contexts of sociology, political philosophy, and colloquial use. In sociology and in everyday usage, it is a synonym for " ethnic pluralism", with the two terms often used interchang ...
and integration. Moreover, so called
advocacy journalism
Advocacy journalism is a genre of journalism that adopts a non-objective viewpoint, usually for some social or political purpose.
Some advocacy journalists reject that the traditional ideal of objectivity is possible or practical, in part due to ...
does not only persist in
Polarized Pluralist countries (especially in Italy, Spain and Greece), but new forms of it are also beginning to proliferate in all kinds of media systems.
Heterogenization of media systems
Some scholars argue against the
theory
A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such processes as observational study or research. Theories may be ...
of homogenization of media systems that due to national
political cultures and
institutions, a process of heterogenization rather than homogenization, has to be stated. The countertendencies of homogenization (for instance new right extremist parties, new forms of
advocacy journalism
Advocacy journalism is a genre of journalism that adopts a non-objective viewpoint, usually for some social or political purpose.
Some advocacy journalists reject that the traditional ideal of objectivity is possible or practical, in part due to ...
, divergence processes in the styles of election coverage between the United States and Great Britain) lead to heterogenization of the media systems. However, the divergence of media systems is confronted by a much more fundamental convergence between them. Hallin & Mancini also argue that the results of their analysis do not support the thesis of heterogenization of media systems.
Hybridization of media systems
Hybrid media systems are defined as a blend of already existing practices and new practices from a new or foreign media system. Foreign models are adapted to the particular
historical, geographical,
social
Social organisms, including human(s), live collectively in interacting populations. This interaction is considered social whether they are aware of it or not, and whether the exchange is voluntary or not.
Etymology
The word "social" derives from ...
, and
cultural characteristics of the domestic media system.
Rather than a temporary state of transformation, hybrid media systems are considered an
equilibrium between two types of practices. Thus, hybrid media systems are mostly located between
authoritarian and
democratic political systems. Although they may have introduced competitive elections, they may not strengthen further
democratic institutions beyond the basic requirements. Therefore, the degree to which hybrid systems adopt
democratic practices can vary from state to state. Hybrid systems build out distinct patterns of politic-media relations with significant differences to Western media systems, for instance the Brazilian media system, which was influenced by the American
journalism
Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the " news of the day" and that informs society to at least some degree. The word, a noun, applies to the occupation (pro ...
model. However, the American
journalism
Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the " news of the day" and that informs society to at least some degree. The word, a noun, applies to the occupation (pro ...
system was not adopted one-to-one, since there "was no solid
market economy,
individualistic culture Individualistic cultures are characterized by individualism, which is the prioritization or emphasis of the individual over the entire group. In individualistic cultures people are motivated by their own preference and viewpoints. Individualistic c ...
, or
political culture that valued the freedom of press". Another example is the media system of Poland, which detached itself from its
communist ties in the 1990s and converged towards Western media systems, but still has its Polish specifics, such as the use of
public-service broadcasting as a political instrument.
According to the three phases from an
authoritarian to a
democratic media system, the old
authoritarian system ends by the
institutionalisation
In sociology, institutionalisation (or institutionalization) is the process of embedding some conception (for example a belief, norm, social role, particular value or mode of behavior) within an organization, social system, or society as a who ...
of
democratic elements (phase 1 and 2). In the third phase, the new hybrid system consolidates
democratic elements, but some elements of the
authoritarian system still exist. Thus, it is difficult to state when the third phase is completed.
In Hallin & Mancini's ''Comparing media systems beyond the western world'' (2012), which gives an overview of criticism about their
framework of 2004 and furthermore extends and revises it, Katrin Voltmer states that, instead of media system homogenization towards the
Liberal Model of Hallin & Mancini's framework, transformation processes rather move towards hybrid media systems, since
media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass e ...
markets become more international, but have to adapt to local situations. Thus, the theory of hybridization in media systems is rather an adaption than a counterpart to the theory of convergence.
Outlook
A consistent transformation
theory
A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such processes as observational study or research. Theories may be ...
valid for all transformation processes and countries, does not yet exist, since it is difficult to cover the variety and complexity of all the processes. Some researchers are of the opinion that it is impossible to find a consistent theory of transformation processes, because of the historical, political and social particularities of each country and their different types of transformation processes. Furthermore, the debate about convergence, divergence, or hybridization of media systems is still ongoing.
[Boczkowski, Mitchelstein & Walter (2011), p. 377, 385-391.]
References
*
*
* de Albuquerque, A. (2012). On Models and Margins: Comparative Media Models Viewed from a Brazilian Perspective. In D. C. Hallin & P. Mancini (Eds.),
Comparing media systems beyond the western world' (pp. 72–95). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
*
* Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004a). Americanization, Globalization, and Secularization: Understand the Convergence of Media Systems and Political Communication. In F. Esser & B. Pfetsch (Eds.),
Comparing Political Communication. Theories, Cases, and Challenges' (pp. 25–44). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*
*
* Kleinsteuber, H. J. (2010). Comparing West and East: A Comparative Approach of Transformation. In B. Dobek-Ostrowska, M. Glowacki, K. Jakubowicz, & M. Sükösd (Eds.),
' (pp. 23–40). Budapest: Central European University Press.
*
* Roudakova, N. (2012). Comparing Processes: Media, "Transitions", and Historical Change. In D. C. Hallin & P. Mancini (Eds.),
Comparing media systems beyond the western world' (pp. 246–277). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
*
* Voltmer, K. (2012). How Far Can Media System Travel?: Applying Hallin & Mancini's Comparative Framework outside the Western World. In D. C. Hallin & P. Mancini (Eds.),
Comparing media systems beyond the western world' (pp. 224–245). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. {{ISBN, 9781107013650
Footnotes
See also
*
Media studies
*
Political communication
*
Mediated cross-border communication
*
Political parallelism
*
Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics
Media studies