Transfer of merit ( sa, pariṇāmanā, italic=yes, pi, pattidāna, italic=yes or ''pattānumodanā'') is a standard part of Buddhist spiritual discipline where the practitioner's
merit
Merit may refer to:
Religion
* Merit (Christianity)
* Merit (Buddhism)
* Punya (Hinduism)
* Imputed righteousness in Reformed Christianity
Companies and brands
* Merit (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes made by Altria
* Merit Energy Company, ...
, resulting from good deeds, is transferred to deceased relatives, to
deities, or to all
sentient beings
Sentience is the capacity to experience feelings and sensations. The word was first coined by philosophers in the 1630s for the concept of an ability to feel, derived from Latin '' sentientem'' (a feeling), to distinguish it from the ability to ...
. Such transfer is done mentally, and it is believed that the recipient can often receive this merit, if they rejoice in the meritorious acts of the person transferring. In
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, merit transfer is seen as a better alternative than mourning.
Scholars have discussed how the doctrine of transfer of merit can be reconciled with the individual nature of
karma in Buddhism
Karma (Sanskrit, also ''karman'', Pāli: ''kamma'') is a Sanskrit term that literally means "action" or "doing". In the Buddhist tradition, ''karma'' refers to action driven by intention (''cetanā'') which leads to future consequences. Those i ...
. Some scholars believe that the idea originates with
early Buddhism The term Early Buddhism can refer to at least two distinct periods in the History of Buddhism, mostly in the History of Buddhism in India:
* Pre-sectarian Buddhism, which refers to the teachings and monastic organization and structure, founded by G ...
, whereas others suspect a later origin. It is widely recognized that transfer of merit was the Buddhist response to pre-Buddhist
Brahmanical
The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...
customs of
ancestor worship
The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
. In Buddhism, such worship was given an ethical emphasis. The doctrine may also have been influenced by pre-Buddhist ideas of transference of powers. In
Mahāyāna Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...
, transfer of merit became an essential aspect of the ideal of the ''
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
'', the Buddha-to-be, who uses his merits to help all living beings.
Transfer of merit is widely practiced in all
Buddhist countries, in ceremonies, festivals, and daily practice. In the present day, transfer of merit has become an intrinsic part of Buddhism and has an important social function.
Translations
In the later
Pāli
Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhi ...
tradition (from 5th–7th century CE), the word ''pattidāna'' is used,
meaning 'giving of the acquired'. In the
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
tradition, the word ''pariṇāmanā'' is used for transferring merit, meaning 'change, alternation; ripening, bringing to maturity; development; diversion'. The term 'transfer of merit' has become commonplace, though objected to by many scholars.
Indeed, 'transfer of merit' does not render any term from a classical Buddhist language.
Description
Merit ( sa, puṇya, italic=yes, pi, puñña, italic=yes) is a concept considered fundamental to
Buddhist ethics
Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on what Buddhists view as the enlightened perspective of the Buddha. The term for ethics or morality used in Buddhism is ''Śīla'' or ''sīla'' (Pāli). ''Śīla'' in Buddhism is one of three sections of ...
. It is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts. Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of the
next life
The afterlife (also referred to as life after death) is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's identity or their stream of consciousness continues to live after the death of their physical body. The surviving ess ...
and contributes to a person's growth towards
enlightenment. Apart from the concept of merit, in
Mahāyāna
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
''pariṇāmanā'' is also associated with the concept of
'roots of virtue' ( sa, kuśala-mūla, italic=yes).
Transferring merit is a widespread custom in all Buddhist countries, Mahāyāna,
Vajrayāna
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
and
Theravāda
''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
,
[''Buddhism. An Outline of its Teachings and Schools'' by Schumann, Hans Wolfgang , trans. by Georg Fenerstein, Rider: 1973), p. 92. Cited in "The Notion of Merit in Indian Religions," by Tommi Lehtonen, ''Asian Philosophy'', Vol. 10, No. 3, 2000 p. 193.] and is often practiced at ceremonies and festivals in honor of the dead.
Transferring merit to another person, usually deceased relatives, is simply done by a mental wish. Despite the word ''transfer'', the merit of the giver is in no way decreased during such an act. The traditional metaphor is a candle used to light another candle, of which the light does not diminish in the process. The merit transferred cannot always be received, however. According to
early Buddhist texts
Early Buddhist texts (EBTs), early Buddhist literature or early Buddhist discourses are parallel texts shared by the early Buddhist schools. The most widely studied EBT material are the first four Pali Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chines ...
, if dead relatives are reborn in a place that is too high or too low, as a ''
deva
Deva may refer to:
Entertainment
* ''Deva'' (1989 film), a 1989 Kannada film
* ''Deva'' (1995 film), a 1995 Tamil film
* ''Deva'' (2002 film), a 2002 Bengali film
* Deva (2007 Telugu film)
* ''Deva'' (2017 film), a 2017 Marathi film
* Deva ...
'' (deity), as a human, as an animal or in
hell, they cannot receive the merit. They can only receive the merit if they are born as ''
preta
Preta ( sa, प्रेत, bo, ཡི་དྭགས་ ''yi dags''), also known as hungry ghost, is the Sanskrit name for a type of supernatural being described in Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religion as undergoing sufferin ...
s'', that is, spirits or ghosts. They must also be able to sympathize with the meritorious act. The transfer of merit is thus connected with the idea of rejoicing. If the relatives do not receive the merit, however, the very act of transferring merit will still be meritorious for the giver himself. This explains part of the definition of ''pariṇāmanā'' ('bringing to maturity'): when a giver gives merit, he also gains it in that way. The other person who rejoices in one's meritorious deeds, in that way also receives merit, if he approves of the merit done. Thus, rejoicing in others' merits, apart from being one of
ten meritorious acts mentioned in
Buddhist texts,);
virtue
Virtue ( la, virtus) is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other words, it is a behavior that shows high moral standards ...
( pi, sīla-maya, italic=yes);
bhāvanā
''Bhāvanā'' (Pali;Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), p. 503, entry for "Bhāvanā," retrieved 9 December 2008 from "U. Chicago" a Sanskrit: भावना, also ''bhāvanā''Monier-Williams (1899), p. 755, see "Bhāvana" and "Bhāvanā", retriev ...
(mental development) ( pi, bhāvanā-maya, italic=yes);
honoring others ( pi, apacāyana-maya, italic=yes); offering service ( pi, veyyāvaca-maya, italic=yes); dedicating (or transferring) merit to others ( pi, pattidāna-maya, italic=yes); rejoicing in others' merit ( pi, pattānumodanā-maya, italic=yes); listening to teachings ( pi, dhammassavana-maya, italic=yes); instructing others in the teachings ( pi, dhammadesanā-maya, italic=yes);
straightening one's own views in accordance with the teachings ( pi, diṭṭhujukamma, italic=yes) is also a prerequisite for the transferring of merit to occur. Because it is believed that merit can actually be transferred, transferring merit to deceased loved ones is seen as a better alternative than mourning. Also, since in the next life there is no such thing as making a living through some occupation, merit is what sustains
living beings
Life form (also spelled life-form or lifeform) is an entity that is living, such as plants (flora) and animals (fauna). It is estimated that more than 99% of all species that ever existed on Earth, amounting to over five billion species, are ex ...
in the afterlife. Material things cannot be transferred directly to beings in the next world, but the merit accrued by making a donation to the
monastic community
A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone (hermits). A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which ...
(Saṅgha) can be transferred. In this way, a certain object donated appears in the next world for the recipient there, although this is through the strength of the
intention of giving, not through the physical act of offering by itself.
The traditional example of the transferring of merit in the
commentaries to the
Pāli Tipiṭaka is that of
King Bimbisāra, who the Buddha encourages to share his merits with his former relatives, reborn as ''pretas''. In the story, during a visit of the Buddha to Bimbisāra's palace, Bimbisāra asks about some outside noise. The Buddha explains it is the noise of ''pretas'', who in a previous life were the king's relatives. The noise was the ''pretas'' crying out of hunger. The Buddha continues that the only way the king could help his former relatives was to transfer the merit from the gifts he had given to the Saṅgha to the ''pretas''. The ''pretas'' are then seen to receive the objects given to the monks: Bimbisāra gives food and cloth to the Saṅgha, and the merit of the gifts allows the ''pretas'' to receive the objects given as well.
Purpose
The purposes for merit transfer differ. Some Mahāyāna traditions believe that it can help deceased relatives to attain the
Pure Land, a heavenly paradise in Pure Land
Buddhist cosmology. In many Buddhist countries, transferring merit is connected to the notion of an
intermediate state
In some forms of Christianity the intermediate state or interim state is a person's existence between death and the universal resurrection. In addition, there are beliefs in a particular judgment right after death and a general judgment or last ...
between death and being reborn again, during which the wandering being's future destiny is still uncertain. The merit that is transferred to the deceased will help them to cross over safely to the
next rebirth. Or if the spirit has already been reborn, but in an
undesirable rebirth, the merits transferred will help to shorten the time that the spirit must spend there. On a similar note, when performing a ceremony to drive away a spirit that has possessed a devotee, devotees may invite a monk for a ceremony to transfer merits to the spirit.
Another aim in transferring merit, apart from helping the deceased, is to dedicate it to the ''devas'', the early orthodox view that they cannot receive merit notwithstanding. It is believed that they are not able to do good deeds themselves, and their favor can be obtained in this way.
Often, transference to deities is focused on deities that are considered protectors of Buddhism.
Furthermore, merit is sometimes transferred to parents as a form of
devotion
Devotion or Devotions may refer to:
Religion
* Faith, confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept
* Anglican devotions, private prayers and practices used by Anglican Christians
* Buddhist devotion, commitment to religious observance
* Cat ...
or
filial piety
In Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism, and Daoist ethics, filial piety (, ''xiào'') (Latin: pietas) is a virtue of respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors. The Confucian '' Classic of Filial Piety'', thought to be written around the lat ...
. Many Buddhists transfer merits to resolve a bond of revenge that may exist between people, as it is believed that someone else's vengefulness may create harm in one's life. Because of this reason, in Japan a special memorial service (''
Mizuko kuyō
meaning "water child memorial service", is a Japanese Buddhist ceremony for those who have had a miscarriage, stillbirth, or abortion. It is also practiced in Thailand and China. This practice has become particularly visible since the 1970s wit ...
'') is often held after an abortion, to dedicate merit to the spirit of the deceased child. Finally, it is also a common practice to transfer merits to all
sentient beings
Sentience is the capacity to experience feelings and sensations. The word was first coined by philosophers in the 1630s for the concept of an ability to feel, derived from Latin '' sentientem'' (a feeling), to distinguish it from the ability to ...
, though more commonly so in Mahāyāna Buddhism than in Theravāda.
The transfer of demerit or evil, the opposite of transfer of merit, has little to no role in Buddhism. It does sometimes take place in Hinduism, in which it is linked with the idea of
pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the ...
.
Historical analysis
Relation with karma
Initially in the Western study of Buddhism, some scholars believed that the transfer of merit was unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism and that it was developed only at a late period after the
historical Buddha. For example, Indologist
Heinz Bechert
Heinz Bechert (26 June 1932, Munich – 14 June 2005, Göttingen) was a German Indologist and Buddhologist.
Life
The son of lawyer Rudolf Bechert and his wife, Herta ( Bade), from 1965 to 2000, Heinz Bechert held the Chair of Indology at the ...
dated the Buddhist doctrine of transfer of merit in its fully developed form to the period between the fifth and seventh century CE. Scholars argued that it was discordant with the
early Buddhist understandings of
karma
Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
, and noticed in the
Kathāvatthu
Kathāvatthu (Pāli) (abbreviated Kv, Kvu; ) is a Buddhist scripture, one of the seven books in the Theravada Abhidhamma Pitaka. The text contrasts the orthodox Theravada position on a range of issues to the heterodox views of various interlocuto ...
text that the idea is partly refuted by Theravādins.
Theologian Tommi Lehtonen quotes historian stating that "the Mahāyāna teaching of the transfer of merit breaks the strict causality of the
Hinayānic law of ''karman'' (P. ''kamma'') according to which everybody wanting better rebirth can reach it solely by his own efforts".
Or as Buddhologist
D. Seyfort Ruegg notes,
Scholars have suggested the practice of transference may have developed due to influence of Mahāyāna Buddhism, in which beings aiming to become a Buddha (''
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
'') can share merit with devotees and thereby save them. Ruegg also argues that the related idea of receiving ( pi, patti, italic=yes, sa, prāpti, italic=yes) merit through rejoicing, expressed through terms such as ''pattānumodanā'' and ''pattidāna'', may have developed due to Mahāyāna influence.
Other scholars have argued that the doctrine of the transfer of merit can be found early in the Theravāda tradition, and that the doctrine is sanctioned by early texts. For example, Indologist
Richard Gombrich
Richard Francis Gombrich (; born 17 July 1937) is a British Indologist and scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli, and Buddhist studies. He was the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford from 1976 to 2004. He is currently Founder-Presiden ...
placed its origins around the fourth century BCE. Buddhist Studies scholar
Gregory Schopen
Gregory Schopen is Professor of Buddhist Studies at University of California, Los Angeles. He received his B.A. majoring in American literature from Black Hills State College, M.A. in history of religions from McMaster University in Ontario, Cana ...
states that the idea of merit transfer is part of all
epigraphical
Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...
findings that are related to a Buddhist belief in karma, even the earliest, in the third century BCE. Then there also scholars who propose that, although the concept of transfer of merit did not exist as such in early Buddhism, early doctrines did form a basis for it, the concept of transfer of merit being an "inherent consequence" (Bechert) of these early doctrines. Gombrich theorizes that early Buddhism focused on individual karma and responsibility, and that the teaching on transference of merit provided an "escape" to this strict doctrine of individual responsibility.
He further argues that the term ''anumodana'', in later Buddhism used for rejoicing as a way to receive merit, in the earliest Pāli texts meant 'giving thanks' and was used when the deceased gave thanks for transferred merit. Later
commentators
Commentator or commentators may refer to:
* Commentator (historical) or Postglossator, a member of a European legal school that arose in France in the fourteenth century
* Commentator (horse) (foaled 2001), American Thoroughbred racehorse
* The Co ...
reinterpreted the term to mean 'rejoicing', to fit in with Buddhist orthodoxy. They explained that the deceased gained merit through simply rejoicing in the merits that their relatives made for them. In this way, there was no real transference of merit, but the deceased made merit by themselves, following orthodox doctrine on individual karma. This still is the explanation given by monastics and other notables in countries like Burma and Sri Lanka, when asked about the apparent contradiction between individual retribution of karma and the transfer of merit.
Transfer of powers
The idea that a certain power can be transferred from one person to another was known before Buddhism. In Hindu texts such as the
Mahābhārata, it is described that ''devas'' can transfer certain powers (''tejas''). A similar belief existed with regard to the energy gained by
performing austerities (''tapas''). In the
Upanishad
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
s, certain ceremonies can be found in which a person's deeds are mystically transferred to another. In the
Laws of Manu
The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...
many examples can be found of good or evil deeds of one person being transferred to another person, whether on purpose or not. However, according to Buddhist Studies scholar M. M. J. Marasinghe, the concept of the transfer of merit in early Buddhism is different from pre-Buddhist ideas in several respects: merit is not donated in literal, measurable parts; meritorious acts in relation to the Saṅgha are emphasized; ''devas'' do not take any part in it; and it is often a compassionate act towards living beings in the next world who are in suffering. Moreover, anthropologist
Charles F. Keyes argues that transfer of merit in Buddhism differs from Hinduism in that no actual substance is exchanged in the rituals, but the transfer is merely abstract.
Ancestor worship
Apart from these transfers of power, a second origin is found in
Brahmanical ancestor worship. The
Petavatthu
__NOTOC__
The Petavatthu () is a Theravada Buddhist scripture, included in the Minor Collection (''Khuddaka Nikaya'') of the Pali Canon's Sutta Pitaka. It ostensibly reports stories about and conversations among the Buddha and his disciples, an ...
text was the Buddhist response to such worship. In this text, transferring merit to deceased relatives is described in detail. The word , literally, 'gone forth', is used in early Buddhism to refer to one's dead relatives in the context of merit transfer. It is the Pāli equivalent of Sanskrit ''preta'' (hungry ghost), but also Sanskrit ''
pitṛ'' (father, ancestor).
In the period preceding the arising of Buddhism, it was believed that when somebody died he had to be transformed from a wandering ''preta'' to the state of the blissful world of the ''pitṛs.'' This was done through the complex ''
śrāddha
Śrāddha (or ''Shradda''; sa, श्राद्ध) is any act that is performed with all sincerity and absolute faith in it. In the Hindu religion, it is the ritual that one performs to pay homage to one's ' ancestors' (Sanskrit: Pitṛs), es ...
'' ceremonies, which would secure the deceased's destiny as a ''pitṛ''.
In early Buddhism, however, ancestor worship was discontinued, as it was believed that the dead would not reach heavenly bliss through rituals or worship, but only through the causality of karma. The practice of transfer of merit developed on the basis of the ethical and psychological principles of karma and merit, and by connecting these principles with the sense of responsibility towards parents in the context of ancestor worship. As for the veneration of dead ancestors, Buddhists replaced this by the veneration of the Saṅgha. In many Buddhist countries, the Saṅgha has therefore taken the role of an intermediary between the devotees who dedicate merit and their deceased relatives. In this context, the Saṅgha is considered a "
field of merit
Merit ( sa, puṇya, italic=yes, pi, puñña, italic=yes) is a concept considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics. It is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts. Merit-making is important ...
": a worthy recipient that helps the devotee accrue the merits required for transfer. In his role in funeral rites, the
Buddhist monk replaced the
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (gur ...
priest as a recipient of gifts. Through the monk's role as a field of merit, lay people were able to adhere to the high standards of Buddhism and its aim on
renunciation
Renunciation (or renouncing) is the act of rejecting something, especially if it is something that the renunciant has previously enjoyed or endorsed.
In religion, renunciation often indicates an abandonment of pursuit of material comforts, in t ...
of the world.
Mahāyāna Buddhism
The doctrine of the transfer of merit helped to shape Buddhism's relation to local deities: the devotee transfers merits to the deity, in exchange for the favor of protection by the deity. Thus, the doctrine had a huge role, and a huge impact on the extent in which Buddhism was able to fit in with new cultures and their respective deities. In the period preceding Mahāyāna Buddhism, transfer of merit had already grown to be an important practice.
In later centuries, in many schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism, it was believed that celestial Buddhas or ''bodhisattvas'' could transfer merits to devotees to help relieve their suffering. The latter could then share that merit with others. When a ''bodhisattva'' transferred his merits, his merits did not decrease in the process, because transfer of merit was seen as a merit in itself. This was called the ''inexhaustible store of merit''. The idea of the ''bodhisattva'' transferring merit has led to several Buddhist traditions focused on devotion. According to Gombrich, this is where the entire idea of the ''bodhisattva'' is based on, and according to Buddhist studies scholar Luis Gómez, it is the expression of the Buddhist ideals of
compassion and
emptiness
Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression, loneliness, anhedonia,
despair, or other mental/emotional disorders, including schizoid ...
. In Chinese Buddhism, influenced by
Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wid ...
, it became common to transfer merit and help the deceased attain the
Pure Land.
However, some schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism developed other interpretations on the transfer of merit. The Japanese religious leader
Nichiren
Nichiren (16 February 1222 – 13 October 1282) was a Japanese Buddhist priest and philosopher of the Kamakura period.
Nichiren declared that the Lotus Sutra alone contains the highest truth of Buddhist teachings suited for the Third Age of ...
(1222–1282) believed transfer of merit to be ineffective, because he argued that in this "
Age of Dharma Decline" only the devotees' faith and discipline would help them to be saved from suffering and a bad rebirth. In practice, however,
Nichiren Buddhism
Nichiren Buddhism ( ja, 日蓮仏教), also known as Hokkeshū ( ja, 法華宗, meaning ''Lotus Sect'') is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism based on the teachings of the 13th-century Japanese Buddhist priest Nichiren (1222–1282) and is one o ...
still recognized merit transfer, though not through the clergy as intermediary. On a similar note, some Japanese schools of Pure Land Buddhism, such as the
Jōdo Shinshū school, do not perform transfer of merits on doctrinal grounds, though some exceptions occur.
Role in practice
Author Sree Padma Holt and scholar Anthony Barber note that merit transfer was well-established and a very integral part of Buddhist practice in the
Andhra
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
region of southern India. In addition, inscriptions at numerous sites across South Asia provide evidence that the transfer of merit was widely practiced in the first few centuries CE. In Theravāda Buddhism, it has become customary for donors to share merits during an , that is, a teaching given by the recipient monks to the donors to rejoice in their merits done. There is also a custom to transfer merits at certain intervals after a relative has died, starting with the first period of usually seven days, another time after a fifty and a hundred days, and after that, every year. Such merit transfer rituals at intervals may be held at the local temple or at home. In some Buddhist countries, certain days have been considered especially suitable for transferring merit, for example on
Wan Sart ( th, วันสารท) in Thailand. Moreover, a custom exists in Thailand and Laos to dedicate merit to parents by ordaining as
monks
A monk (, from el, μοναχός, ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a person who practices religious asceticism by monastic living, either alone or with any number of other monks. A monk may be a person who decides to dedica ...
or
novices
A novice is a person who has entered a religious order and is under probation, before taking vows. A ''novice'' can also refer to a person (or animal e.g. racehorse) who is entering a profession with no prior experience.
Religion Buddhism
...
. Sometimes transferring merit is symbolized by pouring water into a vessel.
In East Asian Buddhism, the doctrine of merit transfer through offerings to the Saṅgha became widely known through the story of
Mulian Rescues His Mother
''Mulian Rescues His Mother'' or ''Mulian Saves His Mother From Hell'' is a popular Chinese Buddhist tale first attested in a Dunhuang manuscript dating to the early 9th century CE. It is an elaboration of the canonical Yulanpen Sutra which w ...
. The yearly festival which refers to this story is widely celebrated in East Asia, and the main practice during the festival is transfer of merits to deceased relatives.
Merit transfer has developed to become a standard element in the basic
liturgy of all main schools of Buddhism. Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists transfer merits as part of the 'Seven-part-worship' ('' sa, saptāṇgapūjā'' or '' sa, Saptavidhā Anuttarapūjā''), and there is almost no ceremony without some form of merit transfer. In some Theravāda countries, for example Sri Lanka, merit transfer is done at the end of a
Dharma teaching service. In a 2002–3 field study among Cambodians, devotees were asked why they sponsored a certain ceremony. One of the most frequent answers was "to dedicate merit to my ancestors". A final example is the role of
stūpas (structures with relics): it has been suggested that ''stūpas'' were built partly because of merit transfer purposes.
The transfer of merits has grown that important in Buddhism, that it has become a major way for Buddhism to sustain itself. In Japan, some temples are even called ''
ekōdera'', which means a temple for merit transfer,
and the practice is widespread, though it is usually led by married priests rather than the celibate Saṅgha as in early Buddhism.
In early Buddhism, it was seen as a sign of good character if someone transferred merit to the dead. In the present day, the doctrine of transfer of merit allows communities to engage in merit-making activities as a group, thereby fostering kinship solidarity and enabling social engagement.
See also
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Bodhisattva vow
The Bodhisattva vow is a vow (Sanskrit: ''praṇidhāna,'' lit. aspiration or resolution) taken by some Mahāyāna Buddhists to achieve full buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings. One who has taken the vow is nominally known as a bodhi ...
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Treasury of merit The treasury of merit or treasury of the Church (''thesaurus ecclesiae''; el, θησαυρός, ''thesaurós'', treasure; el, ἐκκλησία, ''ekklēsía''‚ convening, congregation, parish) consists, according to Catholic belief, of the mer ...
(in Christianity)
Notes
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External links
About the practice of transfer of meritby
Sharon Salzberg
Sharon Salzberg (born August 5, 1952) is a ''New York Times'' bestselling author and teacher of Buddhist meditation practices in the West. In 1974, she co-founded the Insight Meditation Society at Barre, Massachusetts, with Jack Kornfield and Jos ...
, ''
Beliefnet
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History
Launched in 1999 by Steven Waldman and Robert Nylen, Beliefnet ...
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archivedfrom the original on 5 June 2018
{{Buddhism topics
Buddhist rituals
Buddhist belief and doctrine
Death customs
Bodhisattvas