The Tongzhi Emperor (27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), born Zaichun of the
Aisin Gioro
The House of Aisin-Gioro was a Manchu clan that ruled the Later Jin dynasty (1616–1636), the Qing dynasty (1636–1912), and Manchukuo (1932–1945) in the history of China. Under the Ming dynasty, members of the Aisin Gioro clan served as c ...
clan, was the ninth
Emperor of the Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty (1636–1912) was a Manchu-led imperial Chinese dynasty and the last orthodox dynasty of China. It was officially founded in 1636 in what is now Northeast China, but only succeeded the Ming dynasty in China proper in 1644. The Q ...
, and the eighth Qing emperor to rule over
China proper
China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the "core" regions of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. This term is used to express a distinction between the "core" regions popu ...
. His reign, from 1861 to 1875, which effectively lasted through his adolescence, was largely overshadowed by the rule of his mother,
Empress Dowager Cixi
Empress Dowager Cixi ( ; mnc, Tsysi taiheo; formerly Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Empress Dowager T'zu-hsi; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908), of the Manchu people, Manchu Nara (clan)#Yehe Nara, Yehe Nara clan, was a Chinese nob ...
. Although he had little influence over state affairs, the events of his reign gave rise to what historians call the "
Tongzhi Restoration
The Tongzhi Restoration (; c. 1860–1874) was an attempt to arrest the dynastic decline of the Qing dynasty by restoring the traditional order. The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid-century mass uprisings of the ...
", an unsuccessful modernization program.
Life
The only surviving son of the
Xianfeng Emperor
The Xianfeng Emperor (17 July 1831 – 22 August 1861), or by temple name Emperor Wenzong of Qing (), given name Yizhu (), was the eighth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the seventh Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigned from 1850 t ...
and
Empress Dowager Cixi
Empress Dowager Cixi ( ; mnc, Tsysi taiheo; formerly Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Empress Dowager T'zu-hsi; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908), of the Manchu people, Manchu Nara (clan)#Yehe Nara, Yehe Nara clan, was a Chinese nob ...
, the Tongzhi Emperor was namesake to the attempted political reform initiated by his mother, called the
Tongzhi Restoration
The Tongzhi Restoration (; c. 1860–1874) was an attempt to arrest the dynastic decline of the Qing dynasty by restoring the traditional order. The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid-century mass uprisings of the ...
. His first
regnal name
A regnal name, or regnant name or reign name, is the name used by monarchs and popes during their reigns and, subsequently, historically. Since ancient times, some monarchs have chosen to use a different name from their original name when they ac ...
was Qixiang (祺祥; Manchu: ''Fengšengge sabingga''), but this name was later changed, as per tradition upon his succession, to "Tongzhi". The regnal name means 'order and prosperity' coming from the Confucian teaching that "there are many ways of being a good government, and they can all be summarized as order and prosperity".
The Tongzhi Emperor became emperor at the age of five upon the death of his father, the Xianfeng Emperor. His father's choice of a regent,
Sushun, was removed in favor of a partnership between his mother
Empress Dowager Cixi
Empress Dowager Cixi ( ; mnc, Tsysi taiheo; formerly Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Empress Dowager T'zu-hsi; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908), of the Manchu people, Manchu Nara (clan)#Yehe Nara, Yehe Nara clan, was a Chinese nob ...
and
Empress Dowager Ci'an
Empress Xiaozhenxian (12 August 1837 – 8 April 1881), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Niohuru clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and empress consort of Yizhu, the Xianfeng Emperor. She was Empress consort of Qing from 1 ...
.
![《游艺怡情图》](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%B8%E8%89%BA%E6%80%A1%E6%83%85%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B.jpg)
While there had most likely been hopes that the Tongzhi Emperor would become a successful leader like the
Kangxi Emperor
The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to 1 ...
(who ascended the throne as a child in 1661), those hopes would soon be disappointed, as the Tongzhi Emperor grew up to become an obstinate and dissolute young man who also expressed his dissatisfaction with his mother Empress Cixi.
In the fall of 1872, the teenage emperor married
Empress Xiaozheyi
Empress Xiaozheyi (25 July 1854 – 27 March 1875), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Arute clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and empress consort of Zaichun, the Tongzhi Emperor. She was Empress consort of Qing from 1872 unt ...
and two official concubines. The Tongzhi Emperor apparently had wanted to take up power immediately, prompting a quarrel at court regarding the dismantling of the regency and the timing of it. However, the two empresses dowager stuck by the intended date of February 23, 1873.
The day after the Tongzhi Emperor took up the reins of power, the foreign powers requested an audience with the teenage emperor. The request precipitated a sharp disagreement between the ministers at the
foreign legations, who made it clear that they would not perform the ritual
kowtow
A kowtow is the act of deep respect shown by prostration, that is, kneeling and bowing so low as to have one's head touching the ground. In Sinospheric culture, the kowtow is the highest sign of reverence. It was widely used to show reverence ...
to the emperor, and the
Zongli Yamen
The ''Zongli Yamen'' (), short for Office for the General Management of Affairs Concerning the Various Countries (), also known as Prime Minister's Office, Office of General Management, was the government body in charge of foreign policy in imp ...
(foreign affairs ministry), regarding the protocol to be observed. The Qing government was also loath to hold the audience within the confines of the Forbidden City, eventually settling on the "Pavilion of Purple Light" at one of the lakeside palaces to the west of the Forbidden City, which is now part of
Zhongnanhai
Zhongnanhai () is a former imperial garden in the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City, Beijing, adjacent to the Forbidden City; it serves as the central headquarters for the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the State Council of the People' ...
. The audience was finally held on 29 June 1873. After the audience, however, the foreign representatives made clear their annoyance at being received in a hall initially used by the Qing emperors to receive envoys of tributary states.
In the fall of 1874, the Tongzhi Emperor got into a clash with his ministers, which included his two uncles, Prince Gong and
Prince Chun, largely over the emperor's plans to rebuild the
Old Summer Palace
The Old Summer Palace, also known as Yuanmingyuan () or Yuanmingyuan Park, originally called the Imperial Gardens (), and sometimes called the Winter Palace, was a complex of palaces and gardens in present-day Haidian District, Beijing, China. I ...
at a time in which the empire was bankrupt, and over his dissolute behavior. The emperor reacted by firing the ministers, but Empresses Dowager Ci'an and Cixi intervened, and he had them reinstated. That December, it was announced that he was ill with
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
, and the Empress Dowagers resumed the regency. He died on 12 January 1875, leaving no sons to succeed him.
The Tongzhi Emperor's death left the court in a succession crisis as he was childless. Eventually, the empresses dowager designated the Tongzhi Emperor's three-year-old cousin, Zaitian, as the heir to the throne. Zaitian was biologically
Prince Chun's son, but was symbolically adopted as the Xianfeng Emperor's son to make him eligible to succeed the Tongzhi Emperor. Zaitian was thus enthroned as the
Guangxu Emperor
The Guangxu Emperor (14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908), personal name Zaitian, was the tenth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign lasted from 1875 to 1908, but in practice he ruled, wi ...
, with Empresses Dowager Ci'an and Cixi resuming their roles as regents.
Empress Alute, Tongzhi's wife, refused to eat after his death and died seventy days after he did in an act of marital piety.
The Self-Strengthening Movement
The inspiration for the future Self-Strengthening Movement arose from the notion that China's defense in the face of war and rebellion must come from within, as the superior man strengthens himself under imperative of Heaven's robust action. The costs of war and
rebellion
Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority.
A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...
dictated that the Qing dynasty undertake vigorous measures to ensure its survival. Moreover, the very survival of China itself was now at stake.
Self-strengthening efforts evolved in a succession of stages over a period of almost half a century. In 1840 Imperial Commissioner
Lin Zexu
Lin Zexu (30 August 1785 – 22 November 1850), courtesy name Yuanfu, was a Chinese political philosopher and politician. He was the head of states (Viceroy), Governor General, scholar-official, and under the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynast ...
, impressed by the power of British warships in the initial battles of the
Opium War
The First Opium War (), also known as the Opium War or the Anglo-Sino War was a series of military engagements fought between Britain and the Qing dynasty of China between 1839 and 1842. The immediate issue was the Chinese enforcement of the ...
, advocated adoption of Western naval technology. The paddle-wheel steamer ''Nemsis'' had run circles around cumbersome Chinese war junks. Some Chinese at first believed the paddle-wheels were powered by men inside the ship, but soon came to appreciate the power of steam, Commissioner Lin was the first self-strengthener.
Self-strengthening enterprises, including arsenals, shipyards, and technical schools, were now established in the principal treaty ports where access to Western technology was most direct. By 1860, the overwhelming bulk of the Chinese scholarly class had become cognizant of the enormity of changes that were taking place due to the increasingly prevalent Western presence in China. They now proclaimed that change was irresistible and advocated for deeper studies of Western technology. Many reforms were proposed and implemented such as the
Self-Strengthening Movement
The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement (–1895), was a period of radical institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium ...
, but ultimately the failure of reforms was due to multiple factors such as political machinations.
Family
Empress
*
Empress Xiaozheyi
Empress Xiaozheyi (25 July 1854 – 27 March 1875), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Arute clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and empress consort of Zaichun, the Tongzhi Emperor. She was Empress consort of Qing from 1872 unt ...
, of the
Arute clan (孝哲毅皇后 阿魯特氏; 25 July 1854 – 27 March 1875), eighth cousin once removed
皇后..嘉順皇后
Imperial Noble Consort
*
Imperial Noble Consort Shushen
Imperial Noble Consort Shushen (24 December 1859 – 13 April 1904), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Fuca clan, was a consort of the Tongzhi Emperor.
Life Family background
Imperial Noble Consort Shushen's personal name was not recorded i ...
, of the
Fuca clan (淑慎皇貴妃 富察氏; 24 December 1859 – 13 April 1904)
慧妃→皇貴妃..敦宜皇貴妃
*
Imperial Noble Consort Gongsu
Imperial Noble Consort Gongsu (20 September 1857 – 14 April 1921), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Arute (阿鲁特) clan, was a consort of the Tongzhi Emperor. She was one year his junior.
Life Family background
Imperial Noble Consort G ...
, of the
Arute clan (恭肅皇貴妃 阿魯特氏; 20 September 1857 – 14 April 1921)
珣嬪→珣妃..珣貴妃→珣皇貴妃→莊和皇貴妃
*
Imperial Noble Consort Xianzhe
Imperial Noble Consort Xianzhe (2 July 1856 – 3 February 1932), of the Manchu Bordered Blue Banner Hešeri clan, was a consort of the Tongzhi Emperor.
Life Family background
Imperial Noble Consort Xianzhe's personal name was not recorded in ...
, of the
Hešeri
Hešeri (Chinese: 赫舍里; Pinyin: Hesheli; Manchu: ''Hešeri''), is a clan of Manchu nobility with Jianzhou Jurchens roots, originally hailing from the area which is now the modern Chinese provinces of Jilin and Liaoning. It was once one of t ...
clan (獻哲皇貴妃 赫舍里氏; 2 July 1856 – 3 February 1932)
瑜嬪→瑜妃..瑜貴妃→瑜皇貴妃→敬懿皇貴妃
*
Imperial Noble Consort Dunhui
Imperial Noble Consort Dunhui (6 September 1856 – 18 May 1933), of the Manchu Bordered Blue Banner Sirin Gioro clan, was a consort of the Tongzhi Emperor.
Life Family background
Imperial Noble Consort Dunhui's personal name was not recorded i ...
, of the
Sirin Gioro Sirin Gioro (, pinyin: Xilin Jueluo) was a clan of the Manchu nobility, one of the prominent Gioro family. The other clans of Gioro Hala were Aisin Gioro (爱新觉罗), the ruling clan from 1616 to 1912, Irgen Gioro (伊尔根觉罗) and Šušu Gio ...
clan (敦惠皇貴妃 西林覺羅氏; 6 September 1856 – 18 May 1933)
瑨貴人→瑨嬪..瑨妃→瑨貴妃→榮惠皇貴妃
Ancestry
See also
*
Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)
This is a family tree of Chinese monarchs from the Yuan dynasty to the end of the Qing dynasty.
__TOC__
Yuan dynasty and Northern Yuan
The following is the Yuan dynasty family tree. Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire in 1206. The empire ...
*
Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
The Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) or Tongzhi Hui Revolt (, Xiao'erjing: تُجِ خُوِ لُوًا, dng, Тунҗы Хуэй Луан) or Hui (Muslim) Minorities War was a war fought in 19th-century western China, mostly during the reig ...
References
Citations
Sources
*
* Sterling Seagrave, ''Dragon Lady'' .
* ''Daily life in the Forbidden City'', Wan Yi, Wang Shuqing, Lu Yanzhen. .
* ''Forbidden City: The Great Within'', Second Edition. May Holdsworth, Caroline Courtauld. .
Further reading
* Jung Chang, ''Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China'', (2013) .
* Mary Clabaugh Wright. ''The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862-1874.'' (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957).
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tongzhi Emperor
1856 births
1875 deaths
1850s in China
1860s in China
1870s in China
19th-century Chinese monarchs
Child rulers from Asia
Deaths from smallpox
Qing dynasty emperors