There have been two noteworthy
nuclear accident
A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility. Examples include lethal effects to individuals, lar ...
s at the
Tōkai
Tōkai ( 東海, literally ''East Sea'') in Japanese may refer to:
* Tōkai region, a subregion of Chūbu
* Tōkai, Ibaraki, a village, also known as "Tokaimura" (Tokai-village)
* Tōkai, Aichi, a city
* Tōkai University, a private university in T ...
village nuclear campus,
Ibaraki Prefecture
is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Kantō region of Honshu. Ibaraki Prefecture has a population of 2,871,199 (1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of . Ibaraki Prefecture borders Fukushima Prefecture to the north, ...
,
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
. The first accident occurred on 11 March 1997, producing an explosion after an experimental batch of solidified
nuclear waste
Radioactive waste is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material. Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power generation, rare-earth mining, and nuclear weapons ...
caught fire at the
Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation (PNC) radioactive waste
Radioactive waste is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material. Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power generation, rare-earth mining, and nuclear weapons r ...
bituminisation facility. Over twenty people were exposed to
radiation. The second was a
criticality accident
A criticality accident is an accidental uncontrolled nuclear fission chain reaction. It is sometimes referred to as a critical excursion, critical power excursion, or divergent chain reaction. Any such event involves the unintended accumulation ...
at a separate fuel reprocessing facility belonging to
Japan Nuclear Fuel Conversion Co. (JCO) on 30 September 1999 due to improper handling of liquid
uranium fuel. The incident spanned approximately 20 hours and resulted in
radiation exposure for 667 people and the death of two workers.
Nuclear power in Japan
Nuclear power
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced b ...
was an important energy alternative for
natural-resource-poor Japan to
limit dependence on imported energy, providing approximately 30% of Japan’s electricity
up until the
Fukushima nuclear disaster
The was a nuclear accident in 2011 at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Ōkuma, Fukushima, Japan. The proximate cause of the disaster was the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, which occurred on the afternoon of 11 March 2011 ...
of 2011, after which nuclear electricity production fell into sharp decline.
The village of Tōkai's location (approximately seventy miles from Tokyo) and available land space made it ideal for nuclear power production, so a series of experimental
nuclear reactor
A nuclear reactor is a device used to initiate and control a fission nuclear chain reaction or nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and in nuclear marine propulsion. Heat fr ...
s and then the
Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant
The was Japan's first commercial nuclear power plant.
The first unit was built in the early 1960s to the British Magnox design, and generated power from 1966 until it was decommissioned in 1998.
A second unit, built at the site in the 1970s, wa ...
the country's first commercial
nuclear power station
A nuclear power plant (NPP) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical of thermal power stations, heat is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine connected to a generator that produces ele ...
were built here. Over time, dozens of companies and government institutes were established nearby to provide
nuclear research
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions, in addition to the study of other forms of nuclear matter.
Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the ...
, experimentation, manufacturing, and fuel fabrication,
enrichment and
disposal facilities. Nearly one-third of Tokai’s population rely upon nuclear industry-related employment.
1997 nuclear waste accident
On 11 March 1997, the village of Tokai's first serious
nuclear-related incident occurred at
PNC's bituminisation facility. It is sometimes referred to as the Dōnen accident (動燃事故, ''Dōnen jiko''), 'Dōnen' being an abbreviation of PNC's full Japanese name ''Dōryokuro Kakunenryō Kaihatsu Jigyōdan''. The site encased and solidified
low-level liquid waste in molten asphalt (
bitumen) for storage, and that day was trialling a new asphalt-waste mix, using 20% less asphalt than normal. A gradual chemical reaction inside one fresh barrel ignited the already-hot contents at 10:00 a.m. and quickly spread to several others nearby. Workers failed to properly extinguish the fire, and smoke and radiation alarms forced all personnel to evacuate the building. At 8 p.m., just as people were preparing to reenter the building, built up flammable gases ignited and exploded, breaking windows and doors, which allowed smoke and
radiation to escape into the surrounding area.
The incident exposed 37 nearby personnel to trace amounts of radiation in what the government's Science and Technology Agency declared the country’s worst-yet nuclear accident, which was rated a 3 on the
International Nuclear Event Scale
The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) was introduced in 1990 by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in order to enable prompt communication of safety significant information in case of nuclear accidents.
The ...
. A week after the event, meteorological officials detected unusually high levels of
caesium 40 kilometers (25 miles) south-west of the plant.
Aerial views over the nuclear processing plant building showed a damaged roof from the fire and explosion allowing continued external
radiation exposure.
PNC management mandated two workers to falsely report the chronological events leading to the facility evacuation in order to
cover-up
A cover-up is an attempt, whether successful or not, to conceal evidence of wrongdoing, error, incompetence, or other embarrassing information. Research has distinguished personal cover-ups (covering up one's own misdeeds) from relational co ...
lack of proper supervision.
Dōnen leadership failed to immediately report the fire to the Science and Technology Agency (STA). This delay was due to their own internal investigation of the fire causing hampered immediate
emergency response team
An incident response team (IRT) or emergency response team (ERT) is a group of people who prepare for and respond to an emergency, such as a natural disaster or an interruption of business operations. Incident response teams are common in public s ...
s and prolonged radioactivity exposure. Dōnen facility officials initially reported a 20 percent increase of
radiation level
Ionizing radiation (or ionising radiation), including nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have sufficient energy to ionization, ionize atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them. Some particles ...
s in the area surrounding the reprocessing plant but later revealed the true percent was ten times higher than initially published.
Tokai residents demanded criminal prosecution of PNC officials, reorganization of company leadership and closure of the plant itself.
Following
public outcry
A protest (also called a demonstration, remonstration or remonstrance) is a public expression of objection, disapproval or dissent towards an idea or action, typically a political one.
Protests can be thought of as acts of cooper ...
, the facility closed until reopening in November 2000 when it was reinstated as a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant.
Later, Prime Minister
Ryutaro Hashimoto
was a Japanese politician who served as the Prime Minister of Japan from 1996 to 1998. He was the leader of one of the largest factions within the ruling LDP through most of the 1990s and remained a powerful back-room player in Japanese politi ...
criticized the delay that allowed radiation to continue to impact local areas.
1999 accident
The second, more serious Tokai nuclear accident (
Japanese
Japanese may refer to:
* Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia
* Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan
* Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture
** Japanese diaspor ...
: 東海村JCO臨界事故 ''Tōkai-mura JCO-rinkai-jiko'') occurred approximately four miles away from the PNC facility on 30 September 1999, at a fuel enrichment plant operated by
JCO, a subsidiary of Sumitomo Metal Mining Company. It was the worst civilian nuclear radiation accident in Japan prior to the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster of 2011.
The incident exposed the surrounding population to hazardous nuclear radiation after the
uranium
Uranium is a chemical element with the symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weak ...
mixture
reached criticality. Two of the three technicians mixing fuel lost their lives. The incident was caused by lack of regulatory supervision, inadequate safety culture and improper technician training and education.
[Akashi, M., Aoki, H., Endo, A., Fujimoto, K., Homma, T., Kukita, Y., … Zombori, P. (2000). ''Lessons Learned From the Jco Nuclear Criticality Accident in Japan in 1999''. International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved from http://www-ns.iaea.org/downloads/iec/tokaimura-report.pdf]
The JCO facility converted
uranium hexafluoride
Uranium hexafluoride (), (sometimes called "hex") is an inorganic compound with the formula UF6. Uranium hexafluoride is a volatile white solid that reacts with water, releasing corrosive hydrofluoric acid. The compound reacts mildly with alumin ...
into
enriched uranium
Enriched uranium is a type of uranium in which the percent composition of uranium-235 (written 235U) has been increased through the process of isotope separation. Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major isotopes: uranium-238 (238U ...
dioxide fuel. This served as the first step in producing nuclear reactor
fuel rod
Nuclear fuel is material used in nuclear power stations to produce heat to power turbines. Heat is created when nuclear fuel undergoes nuclear fission.
Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile actinide elements that are capable of undergoing ...
s for Japan's power plants and research reactors.
Enriching nuclear fuel requires precision and has the potential to impose extreme risks to technicians. If done improperly, the process of combining nuclear products can produce a
fission reaction which, in turn, produces radiation.
In order to enrich the uranium fuel, a specific chemical purification procedure is required. The steps included feeding small batches of
uranium oxide
Uranium oxide is an oxide of the element uranium.
The metal uranium forms several oxides:
* Uranium dioxide or uranium(IV) oxide (UO2, the mineral uraninite or pitchblende)
* Diuranium pentoxide or uranium(V) oxide (U2O5)
* Uranium trioxide o ...
powder into a designated dissolving tank in order to produce
uranyl nitrate
Uranyl nitrate is a water-soluble yellow uranium salt with the formula . The hexa-, tri-, and dihydrates are known. The compound is mainly of interest because it is an intermediate in the preparation of nuclear fuels.
Uranyl nitrate can be prepa ...
using
nitric acid
Nitric acid is the inorganic compound with the formula . It is a highly corrosive mineral acid. The compound is colorless, but older samples tend to be yellow cast due to decomposition into oxides of nitrogen. Most commercially available nitri ...
.
Next, the mixture is carefully transported to a specially-crafted buffer tank. The buffer tank containing the combined ingredients is specially designed to prevent fission activity from reaching criticality. In a precipitation tank,
ammonia
Ammonia is an inorganic compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . A stable binary hydride, and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinct pungent smell. Biologically, it is a common nitrogenous wa ...
is added forming a solid product. This tank is meant to capture any remaining nuclear waste contaminants. In the final process, uranium oxide is placed in the dissolving tanks until purified, without enriching the
isotope
Isotopes are two or more types of atoms that have the same atomic number (number of protons in their nuclei) and position in the periodic table (and hence belong to the same chemical element), and that differ in nucleon numbers (mass numb ...
s, in a wet-process technology specialized by Japan.
Pressure placed upon JCO to increase efficiency led the company to employ an illegal procedure wherein they skipped several key steps in the enrichment procedure. The technicians poured the product by hand in stainless-steel buckets directly into a precipitation tank.
This process inadvertently contributed to a
critical mass
In nuclear engineering, a critical mass is the smallest amount of fissile material needed for a sustained nuclear chain reaction. The critical mass of a fissionable material depends upon its nuclear properties (specifically, its nuclear fi ...
level incident triggering uncontrolled nuclear
chain reaction
A chain reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place. In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events.
Chain reactions are one way that sys ...
s over the next several hours.
Nuclear criticality event chronology
JCO facility technicians Hisashi Ouchi, Masato Shinohara, and Yutaka Yokokawa were speeding up the last few steps of the fuel/conversion process to meet shipping requirements. It was JCO's first batch of fuel for the
Joyo experimental fast breeder reactor in three years; no proper qualification and training requirements were established to prepare for the process.
To save processing time, and for convenience, the team mixed the chemicals in stainless-steel buckets. The workers followed JCO operating manual guidance in this process but were unaware it was not approved by the STA.
Under correct operating procedure, uranyl nitrate would be stored inside a buffer tank and gradually pumped into the precipitation tank in increments.
At around 10:35, the precipitation tank reached
critical mass
In nuclear engineering, a critical mass is the smallest amount of fissile material needed for a sustained nuclear chain reaction. The critical mass of a fissionable material depends upon its nuclear properties (specifically, its nuclear fi ...
when its fill level, containing about of uranium, reached criticality in the tall and narrow buffer tank.
The hazardous level was reached after the technicians added a seventh bucket containing aqueous uranyl nitrate, enriched to 18.8%
235U, to the tank.
The solution added to the tank was almost seven times the legal mass limit specified by the STA.
The nuclear fuel conversion standards specified in the 1996 JCO Operating Manual dictated the proper procedures regarding dissolution of uranium oxide powder in a designated dissolution tank.
[Akashi, M., Aoki, H., Endo, A., Fujimoto, K., Homma, T., Kukita, Y., … Zombori, P. (2000). ''Lessons Learned From the Jco Nuclear Criticality Accident in Japan in 1999''. International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved from
http://www-ns.iaea.org/downloads/iec/tokaimura-report.pdf] The buffer tank's tall, narrow geometry was designed to hold the solution safely and to prevent criticality. In contrast, the precipitation tank had not been designed to hold unlimited quantities of this type of solution. The designed wide cylindrical shape made it favorable to criticality. The workers bypassed the buffer tanks entirely, opting to pour the uranyl nitrate directly into the precipitation tank. An uncontrolled
nuclear fission began immediately. The resulting nuclear fission chain became
self-sustaining
Self-sustainability and self-sufficiency are overlapping states of being in which a person or organization needs little or no help from, or interaction with, others. Self-sufficiency entails the self being enough (to fulfill needs), and a self-s ...
, emitting intense
gamma and
neutron radiation
Neutron radiation is a form of ionizing radiation that presents as free neutrons. Typical phenomena are nuclear fission or nuclear fusion causing the release of free neutrons, which then react with nuclei of other atoms to form new isotopes— ...
.
At the time of the event, Ouchi had his body draped over the tank while Shinohara stood on a platform to assist in pouring the solution. Yokokawa was sitting at a desk four meters away.
All three technicians observed a
blue flash (possibly
Cherenkov radiation) and gamma radiation alarms sounded.
Over the next several hours the fission reaction produced continuous chain reactions.
Ouchi and Shinohara immediately experienced pain, nausea, and difficulty breathing; both workers went to the decontamination room where Ouchi vomited. Ouchi received the largest radiation exposure, resulting in rapid difficulties with mobility, coherence, and loss of consciousness.
Upon the point of critical mass, large amounts of high-level gamma radiation set off alarms in the building, prompting the three technicians to evacuate.
All three of the workers were unaware of the impact of the accident or reporting criteria. A worker in the next building became aware of the injured employees and contacted emergency medical assistance; an ambulance escorted them to the nearest hospital. The
fission products contaminated the fuel reprocessing building and immediately outside the nuclear facility.
[IAEA. (1999). ''Report on the preliminary fact finding mission following the accident at the nuclear fuel processing facility in Tokaimura, Japan'' (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 32–34). Vienna.] Emergency service workers arrived and escorted other plant workers outside of the facility's muster zones.
The next morning, workers ended the nuclear chain reaction by draining water from the surrounding cooling jacket installed on the precipitation tank. The water served as a
neutron reflector
A neutron reflector is any material that reflects neutrons. This refers to elastic scattering rather than to a specular reflection. The material may be graphite, beryllium, steel, tungsten carbide, gold, or other materials. A neutron reflector ...
. A boric acid solution was added to the precipitation tank to reduce all contents to sub-critical levels;
boron was selected for its
neutron absorption
Neutron capture is a nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus and one or more neutrons collide and merge to form a heavier nucleus. Since neutrons have no electric charge, they can enter a nucleus more easily than positively charged protons, ...
properties.
Tokaimura evacuation
By mid-afternoon the plant workers and surrounding residents were asked to evacuate. Five hours after the start of the criticality, evacuation commenced of some 161 people from 39 households within a 350-meter radius from the conversion building. Twelve hours after the incident, 300,000 surrounding residents of the nuclear facility were told to stay indoors and cease all agricultural production.
This restriction was lifted the following afternoon. Almost 15 days later, the facility instituted protection methods with sandbags and other shielding to protect from residual gamma radiation.
Aftermath
Without an emergency plan or public communication from the JCO, confusion and panic followed the event.
Authorities warned locals not to harvest crops or drink well water.
In order to ease public concerns, officials began radiation testing of residents living approximately 6 miles from the facility. Over the next 10 days, approximately 10,000 medical check-ups were conducted.
Dozens of emergency workers and residents who lived nearby were hospitalized and hundreds of thousands of others were forced to remain indoors for 24 hours. Testing confirmed 39 of the workers were exposed to the radiation.
At least 667 workers, first-responders, and nearby residents were exposed to excess radiation as a result of the accident.
Ultimately the incident was classified as an “irradiation” not “contamination” accident under Level 4 on the Nuclear Event Scale.
This determination labeled the situation low risk outside of the facility.
The technicians and workers in the facility were measured for radiation contamination. The three technicians measured significantly higher levels of radiation than the measurement designated the maximum allowable dose (50 mSv) for Japanese nuclear workers.
Many employees of the Company and local population suffered accidental radiation exposure exceeding safe levels. Over fifty plant workers tested up to 23 mSv and local residents up to 15 mSv.
Fatal doses of radiation ended the lives of two technicians, Ouchi and Shinohara.
Impact on technicians
According to the radiation testing by the STA, Ouchi was exposed to 17 Sv of radiation, Shinohara 10 Sv, and Yokokawa received 3 Sv.
The two technicians who received the higher doses, Ouchi and Shinohara, died several months later.
Hisashi Ouchi, 35, was transported and treated at the University of Tokyo Hospital for 83 days.
Ouchi suffered serious radiation burns to most of his body, experienced severe damage to his internal organs, and had a near-zero
white blood cell count. Without a functioning immune system, Ouchi was vulnerable to
hospital-borne pathogens and was placed in a special radiation ward to limit the risk of contracting an infection. Doctors attempted to restore some functionality to Ouchi's immune system by administering
peripheral blood stem cell transplantation, which at the time was a new form of treatment.
After receiving the transplant from his sister, Ouchi initially experienced increased white blood cell counts temporarily but succumbed to his other injuries shortly thereafter.
The leukocytes being produced by the transplanted tissue were found to have been mutated by the residual radiation present in his body, triggering
autoimmune response
An autoimmune disease is a condition arising from an abnormal immune response to a functioning body part. At least 80 types of autoimmune diseases have been identified, with some evidence suggesting that there may be more than 100 types. Nearly a ...
s that exacerbated his rapidly deteriorating condition, and white blood cell counts began to decrease.
Numerous other interventions were conducted in an attempt to arrest further decline of Ouchi's severely damaged body, including repeated use of cultured skin grafts and pharmacological interventions with
painkillers
An analgesic drug, also called simply an analgesic (American English), analgaesic (British English), pain reliever, or painkiller, is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve relief from pain (that is, analgesia or pain management). It i ...
,
broad-spectrum antibiotic
A broad-spectrum antibiotic is an antibiotic that acts on the two major bacterial groups, Gram-positive and Gram-negative, or any antibiotic that acts against a wide range of disease-causing bacteria. These medications are used when a bacterial ...
s and
granulocyte colony-stimulating factor
Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF or GCSF), also known as colony-stimulating factor 3 (CSF 3), is a glycoprotein that stimulates the bone marrow to produce granulocytes and stem cells and release them into the bloodstream.
Functiona ...
, without any measurable success.
At the wishes of his family, doctors repeatedly revived Ouchi when his heart stopped, even as it became clear the damage his body had sustained through radiation was untreatable.The family deliberated that if Ouchi's heart stopped again, they would not force the situation again. His wife hoped that he would at least survive to the January 1st since it was the arrival of the millennium. Despite their efforts, his condition deteriorated into
multiple organ failure
Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) is altered organ function in an acutely ill patient requiring medical intervention to achieve homeostasis.
Although Irwin and Rippe cautioned in 2005 that the use of "multiple organ failure" or "multisy ...
resulting from extensive radiation damage, exacerbated by the repeated incidents where Ouchi's heart stopped. He died on 21 December 1999 following an unrecoverable cardiac arrest.
According to Japanese law, the doctors were legally obligated to proceed with treatment until nothing more could be done, with the exception of express permission from Ouchi to suspend treatment, permission that was not granted during the period in which he was still able to communicate.
Masato Shinohara, 40, was transported to the same facility where he died on 27 April 2000 of multiple organ failure. He endured radical cancer treatment, numerous successful skin grafts, and a transfusion from congealed umbilical cord blood (to boost stem cell count). Despite his seven month battle, he was unable to fight radiation induced infections and internal bleeding, resulting in fatal lung and kidney failure.
Their supervisor, Yutaka Yokokawa, 54, received treatment from the National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS) in Chiba. He was released three months later with minor radiation sickness. He faced negligence charges in October 2000.
Contributors to both accidents
According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, the cause of the accidents were "
human error
Human error refers to something having been done that was " not intended by the actor; not desired by a set of rules or an external observer; or that led the task or system outside its acceptable limits".Senders, J.W. and Moray, N.P. (1991) Human ...
and serious breaches of safety principles".
Several human errors caused the incident in 1997 including careless material handling procedures, inexperienced technicians, inadequate supervision and obsolete safety procedures on the operating floor.
The company had not had any incidents for over 15 years making company employees complacent in their daily responsibilities.
The 1999 incident resulted from poor management of operation manuals, failure to qualify technicians and engineers, and improper procedures associated with handling nuclear chemicals. The lack of communication between the engineers and workers contributed to lack of reporting when the incident arose.
Had the company corrected the errors after the 1997 incident, the 1999 incident would have been considerably less devastating or may not have happened.
Comments within the 2012 Report by the
notice regulatory and nuclear industry overconfidence, and governance failures may equally apply to the Tokaimura nuclear accident.
Victim compensation and plant closure
Over 600 plant workers, firefighters, emergency personnel and local residents were exposed to radioactivity following the incident.
In October 1999, JCO set up advisory booths to process compensation claims and inquiries of those affected.
By July 2000, over 7,000 compensation claims were filed and settled. In September 2000 JCO agreed to pay $121 million in compensation to settle 6,875 claims from people exposed to radiation and affected agricultural and service businesses.
All residents within 350 meters of the incident and those forced to evacuate received compensation if they agreed to not sue the company in the future.
In late March 2000, the STA cancelled JCO’s credentials for operation serving as the first Japanese plant operator to be punished by law for mishandling nuclear radiation.
This suit was followed by the company president’s resignation. In October, six officials from JCO were charged with professional negligence derived from failure to properly train technicians and knowingly subverting safety procedures.
Resulting legal suits
In April 2001 six employees, including the chief of production department at the time, pleaded guilty to a charge of negligence resulting in death.
Among those arrested was Yokokawa for his failure to supervise proper procedures.
The JCO President also pleaded guilty on behalf of the company.
During the trial, the jury learned that a 1995 JCO safety committee had approved the use of steel buckets in the procedure. Furthermore, a widely distributed but unauthorized 1996 manual recommended the use of buckets in making the solution. A STA report indicated JCO management had permitted these hazardous practices beginning in 1993 to shortcut the conversion process, even though it was contrary to approved nuclear chemical handling procedures.
As a response to the incidents, special laws were put in place stipulating operational safety procedures and quarterly inspection requirements.
These inspections focused on the proper conduct of workers and leadership. This change mandated both safety education and quality assurance of all facilities and activities associated with nuclear power generation. Starting in 2000, Japan's atomic and nuclear commissions began regular investigations of facilities, expansive education regarding proper procedures and safety culture regarding handling nuclear chemicals and waste.
Efforts to comply with emergency preparedness procedures and international guideline requirements continued. New systems were put in place for handling a similar incident with governing legislature and institutions in an effort to prevent further situations from occurring.
Japan relies heavily on imports for 80% of all energy requirements, due to this shortage, mounting pressures to produce self-sustaining energy sources remain. In 2014, the Japanese government decided to establish the "Strategic Energy Plan" naming nuclear power as an important power source that can safely stabilize and produce the energy supply and demand of the country.
This event contributed to antinuclear activist movements against production of
nuclear energy in Japan
Prior to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan had generated 30% of its electrical power from nuclear reactors and planned to increase that share to 40%. Nuclear power energy was a national strategic priority in Japan.
, of the 54 nu ...
.
To this day, the tensions between the need for produced power outside of nonexistent natural resources and the safety of the country’s population remain. Advocacy for acute nuclear disease victims and eradication of nuclear related incidents has led to several movements across the globe promoting human welfare and environmental conservation.
[Eiko Maruko Siniawer. ''Consuming Postwar Japan.'' Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2018]
See also
*
Nuclear power in Japan
Prior to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan had generated 30% of its electrical power from nuclear reactors and planned to increase that share to 40%. Nuclear power energy was a national strategic priority in Japan.
, of the 54 nu ...
*
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
*
Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant
The is a nuclear reprocessing plant with an annual capacity of 800 tons of uranium or 8 tons of plutonium. It is owned by Japan Nuclear Fuel Limited (JNFL) and is part of the Rokkasho complex located in the village of Rokkasho in northeast Ao ...
, meant to be the successor to the Tokai reprocessing Plant
References
External links
What Happened at Tokaimura?Tokaimura Criticality Accident – What happened in Japan* International Atomic Energy Agency: “Report on the preliminary fact finding mission following the accident at the nuclear fuel processing facility in Tokaimura, Japan”, 199
(9.5 MB PDF, herethinsp;)
Wise Uranium project
{{Nuclear power in Japan
Nuclear accidents and incidents
Nuclear reprocessing sites
Nuclear history of Japan
Man-made disasters in Japan
Heisei period
1997 in Japan
1997 industrial disasters
1999 in Japan
1999 industrial disasters
Tōkai, Ibaraki
1997 disasters in Japan
1999 disasters in Japan