Lake Titicaca (; es, Lago Titicaca ; qu, Titiqaqa Qucha) is a large

freshwater Fresh water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. Although the term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water, it does include ...

lake A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, surrounded by land, and distinct from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, although, like the much large ...

in the

Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...

mountains on the border of

Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...

and

Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...

. It is often called the highest navigable lake in the world. By volume of water and by surface area, it is also the largest lake in South America.Grove, M. J., P. A. Baker, S. L. Cross, C. A. Rigsby and G. O. Seltzer 2003 Application of Strontium Isotopes to Understanding the Hydrology and Paleohydrology of the Altiplano, Bolivia-Peru. ''Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology'' 194:281-297. Lake Titicaca has a surface elevation of . The "highest lake" claim is generally considered to refer to commercial craft. Numerous smaller bodies of water (that are not considered lakes) around the world are at higher elevations. For many years, the largest vessel afloat on the lake was the 2,200-ton (2,425 U.S. tons), SS ''Ollanta''. Today, the largest vessel is most likely the similarly sized train barge/float ''

Manco Capac Manco is a male given name, and may refer to: *Manco Capac, also known as Manco Inca and Ayar Manco, according to some historians, founder and first governor of the Inca civilization in Cuzco (KOOZ-Koh), possibly in the early 13th century *Manco Inc ...

'', operated by PeruRail. Other cultures lived on Lake Titicaca prior to the arrival of the

Inca The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...

s. In 2000, a team of international archaeologists and divers found the ruins of an underwater temple, thought to be between 1,000 and 1,500 years old, most likely built by the

Tiwanaku Tiwanaku ( es, Tiahuanaco or ) is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia near Lake Titicaca, about 70 kilometers from La Paz, and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilo ...

people. The ruins have been measured to be . The temple was accompanied by a village, some roads, terraces for farming and a retaining wall that ran for 800 metres.

Overview

The lake is located at the northern end of the

endorheic An endorheic basin (; also spelled endoreic basin or endorreic basin) is a drainage basin that normally retains water and allows no outflow to other external bodies of water, such as rivers or oceans, but drainage converges instead into lakes ...

Altiplano The Altiplano (Spanish for "high plain"), Collao (Quechua and Aymara: Qullaw, meaning "place of the Qulla") or Andean Plateau, in west-central South America, is the most extensive high plateau on Earth outside Tibet. The plateau is located at the ...

basin high in the

on the border of Peru and Bolivia. The western part of the lake lies within the

Puno Region Puno () is a department and region in southeastern Peru. It is the fifth largest department in Peru, after Cuzco, Madre de Dios, Ucayali, and Loreto. It is bordered by Bolivia on the east, the departments of Madre de Dios on the north, Cusco ...

of Peru, and the eastern side is located in the Bolivian La Paz Department. The lake consists of two nearly separate subbasins connected by the Strait of Tiquina, which is across at the narrowest point. The larger subbasin, ''Lago Grande'' (also called ''Lago Chucuito''), has a mean depth of and a maximum depth of . The smaller subbasin, Wiñaymarka (also called ''Lago Pequeño'', "little lake"), has an average depth of and a maximum depth of .Dejoux, C. and A. Iltis (editors) (1992). ''Lake Titicaca: A Synthesis of Limnological Knowledge''. 68. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. The overall average depth of the lake is . Five major river systems feed into Lake Titicaca. In order of their relative flow volumes these are Ramis, Coata, Ilave, Huancané, and Suchez. More than 20 other smaller streams empty into Titicaca. The lake has 41 islands, some of which are densely populated. Having only a single season of free circulation, the lake is

monomictic Monomictic lakes are holomictic lakes that mix from top to bottom during one mixing period each year. Monomictic lakes may be subdivided into cold and warm types. Cold monomictic lakes Cold monomictic lakes are lakes that are covered by ice thro ...

,Cross, S. L., P. A. Baker, G. O. Seltzer, S. C. Fritz and R. B. Dunbar (2001). Late Quaternary Climate and Hydrology of Tropical South America Inferred from an Isotopic and Chemical Model of Lake Titicaca, Bolivia and Peru. ''Quaternary Research'' 56(1):1–9. and water passes through Lago Huiñaimarca and flows out the single outlet at the Río Desaguadero, which then flows south through Bolivia to

Lake Poopó __NOTOC__ Lake Poopó ( es, Lago Poopó ) was a large saline lake in a shallow depression in the Altiplano Mountains in Oruro Department, Bolivia, at an altitude of approximately . Because the lake was long and wide (), it made up the eastern ...

. This only accounts for about 10% of the lake's

water balance The law of water balance states that the inflows to any water system or area is equal to its outflows plus change in storage during a time interval. In hydrology, a water balance equation can be used to describe the flow of water in and out of ...

Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration (ET) is the combined processes by which water moves from the earth’s surface into the atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of water to the air directly from soil, canopies, and water bodies) and transpi ...

, caused by strong winds and intense sunlight at high altitude, balances the remaining 90% of the water loss. It is nearly a closed lake. Since 2000, Lake Titicaca has experienced constantly receding water levels. Between April and November 2009 alone, the water level dropped by , reaching the lowest level since 1949. This drop is caused by shortened rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers feeding the tributaries of the lake.

Water pollution Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water ...

is also an increasing concern because cities in the Titicaca watershed grow, sometimes outpacing solid waste and sewage treatment infrastructure. According to the

Global Nature Fund Global Nature Fund, established in 1998, is a private non-profit foundation with the stated goal of protecting the environment. It is headquartered in Radolfzell, Germany. The organization, which sponsors the Living Lakes Network, marks World Wet ...

(GNF), Titicaca's biodiversity is threatened by water pollution and the

introduction Introduction, The Introduction, Intro, or The Intro may refer to: General use * Introduction (music), an opening section of a piece of music * Introduction (writing), a beginning section to a book, article or essay which states its purpose and g ...

of new species by humans. In 2012, the GNF nominated the lake "Threatened Lake of the Year".

Temperature

The cold sources and winds over the lake give it an average surface temperature of . In the winter (June – September), mixing occurs with the deeper waters, which are always between .

Name

Neither the protohistoric nor prehistoric name for Lake Titicaca is known. Given the various

Indigenous Indigenous may refer to: *Indigenous peoples *Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention *Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band *Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...

groups that occupied the Lake Titicaca region, it likely lacked a single, commonly accepted name in prehistoric times and at the time the Spaniards arrived.Standish, C. (2005) ''Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia.'' Oakland, California, University of California Press. 338 pp. The terms ''titi'' and ''caca'' can be translated in multiple ways. In

Aymara Aymara may refer to: Languages and people * Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language ** Aymara language, the main language within that family ** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...

, ''titi'' can be translated as either puma,

lead Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cu ...

, or a heavy metal. The word ''caca'' (''kaka'') can be translated as white or grey hairs of the head and the term ''k’ak’a'' can be translated as either crack or fissure, or alternatively, comb of a bird. According to Weston La Barre, the Aymara considered in 1948 that the proper name of the lake is ''titiq’aq’a,'' which means gray, discolored, lead-colored puma. This phrase refers to the sacred carved rock found on the

Isla del Sol Isla del Sol (''Island of the Sun'') is an island in the southern part of Lake Titicaca. It is part of Bolivia, and specifically part of the La Paz Department (Bolivia), La Paz Department. Geographically, the terrain is harsh; it is a rocky, hilly ...

.La Barre, W. (1948) ''The Aymara Indians of the Lake Titicaca Plateau, Bolivia.'' American Anthropological Association Memoir. no. 68, pp. 208–210. In addition to names including the term ''titi'' and/or ''caca,'' Lake Titicaca was also known as ''Chuquivitu'' in the 16th century. This name can be loosely translated as lance point. This name survives in modern usage in which the large lake is occasionally referred to as ''Lago Chucuito.'' Reed Islands of Lake Titicaca -b

Stanish argues that the logical explanation for the origin of the name Titicaca is a corruption of the term ''thakhsi cala,'' which is the 15th- to 16th-century name of the sacred rock on the Isla del Sol.Bauer, B., and Stanish, C. (2001) ''Ritual and Pilgrimage in the Ancient Andes.'' Austin, Texas, University of Texas Press. 314 pp. Given the lack of a common name for Lake Titicaca in the 16th century, the Spaniards are thought to have used the name of the site of the most important indigenous shrine in the region, ''thakhsi cala'' on the Isla del Sol, as the name for the lake. In time and with usage, this name developed into ''Titicaca.'' Locally, the lake goes by several names. The southeast quarter of the lake is separate from the main body (connected only by the Strait of Tiquina) and the Bolivians call it Lago Huiñaymarca (also Wiñay Marka, which in Aymara means the Eternal City) and the larger part Lago Chucuito. The large lake also is occasionally referred to as Lago Mayor, and the small lake as Lago Menor. In Peru, these smaller and larger parts are referred to as Lago Pequeño and Lago Grande, respectively.

Ecology

Lake Titicaca is home to more than 530 aquatic species.Kroll; Hershler; Albrecht; Terrazas; Apaza; Fuentealba; Wolff; and Wilke (2012). ''The endemic gastropod fauna of Lake Titicaca: correlation between molecular evolution and hydrographic history.'' Ecol Evol. Jul 2012; 2(7): 1517–1530. The lake holds large populations of water birds and was designated as a

Ramsar Site A Ramsar site is a wetland site designated to be of international importance under the Ramsar Convention,8 ha (O) *** Permanent 8 ha (P) *** Seasonal Intermittent < 8 ha(Ts) **

threatened species Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants and fungi) which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of ''critical depensa ...

such as the huge

Titicaca water frog ''Telmatobius culeus'', commonly known as the Titicaca water frog, is a medium-large to very large and endangered species of frog in the family Telmatobiidae. It is entirely aquatic and only found in the Lake Titicaca basin, including rivers th ...

and the flightless

Titicaca grebe The Titicaca grebe (''Rollandia microptera''), also known as the Titicaca flightless grebe or short-winged grebe, is a grebe found on the altiplano of Peru and Bolivia. As its name implies, its main population occurs on Lake Titicaca. Lake Uru ...

are largely or entirely restricted to the lake,Fjeldså, J.; & Krabbe, N. (1990). ''Birds of the High Andes: A Manual to the Birds of the Temperate Zone of the Andes and Patagonia, South America.'' and the Titicaca orestias has likely become extinct (last seen in 1938) due to competition and predation by the introduced

rainbow trout The rainbow trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'') is a species of trout native to cold-water tributaries of the Pacific Ocean in Asia and North America. The steelhead (sometimes called "steelhead trout") is an anadromous (sea-run) form of the coasta ...

and the silverside ''

Odontesthes bonariensis ''Odontesthes bonariensis'' is a species of Neotropical silverside, an euryhaline fish native to fresh, brackish and salt water in south-central and southeastern South America, but also introduced elsewhere. It is often known by the common nam ...

''. In addition to the Titicaca orestias, native fish species in the lake's basin are other species of ''

Orestias Orestias ( el, Ὀρεστιάς) was an ancient Greek settlement next to the Maritsa (or Evros) river, near or at the site of present-day Edirne, and close to the current border between Turkey and Greece. Legends claim that Orestias was founded ...

'', and the catfish '' Trichomycterus dispar'', '' T. rivulatus'', and ''

Astroblepus stuebeli ''Astroblepus stuebeli'' is a species of catfish of the family Astroblepidae. It is endemic to the Lake Titicaca basin, in Bolivia and Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú ...

'' (the last species not in the lake itself, but in associated ecosystems). The many ''Orestias'' species in Lake Titicaca differ significantly in both habitat preferenceLauzanne, L. (1992). Fish Fauna. pp. 405–448 in: Dejoux, C., eds. (1992). Lake Titicaca: a synthesis of limnological knowledge. and feeding behavior. About 90% of the fish species in the basin are

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...

,Hales, J., and P. Petry (2013).
Titicaca
''. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World. Retrieved 11 February 2013 including 23 species of ''Orestias'' that only are found in the lake.Vila, Morales, Scott, Poulin, Veliz, Harrod and Mendez (2013). Phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis of the genus ''Orestias'' (Teleostei: Cyprinodontidae) in the southern Chilean Altiplano: the relevance of ancient and recent divergence processes in speciation. Journal of Fish Biology 82, 927–943. In addition to the threatened Titicaca grebe, some of the birds associated with water at Titicaca are the

white-tufted grebe The white-tufted grebe (''Rollandia rolland''), also known as Rolland's grebe, is a species of grebe in the family Podicipedidae. Found in the southern half of South America, its natural habitat is freshwater lakes, ponds and sluggish streams. ...

Puna ibis The Puna ibis (''Plegadis ridgwayi'') is a species of bird in the family Threskiornithidae. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Its natural habitats are swamps, marshes and lakes, and most of its range is in the Andean highlands, ...

Chilean flamingo The Chilean flamingo (''Phoenicopterus chilensis'') is a species of large flamingo at closely related to the American flamingo and the greater flamingo, with which it was sometimes considered conspecific. The species is listed as near threatened ...

Andean gull The Andean gull (''Chroicocephalus serranus'') is a species of gull in the family Laridae. As is the case with many gulls, it has traditionally been placed in the genus ''Larus''. It is found in the Andes in mountainous regions of Argentina, Bol ...

Andean lapwing The Andean lapwing (''Vanellus resplendens'') is a species of bird in family Charadriidae, the plovers and their relatives. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.Remsen, J. V., Jr., J. I. Areta, E. Bonaccorso, S. ...

white-backed stilt The white-backed stilt (''Himantopus melanurus'') is a locally abundant shorebird of South American wetlands and coastlines. It is found from northwest Brazil to southwest Peru and southcentral Argentina. Taxonomy It is sometimes treated as a s ...

greater yellowlegs The greater yellowlegs (''Tringa melanoleuca'') is a large shorebird in the family Scolopacidae. It breeds in central Canada and southern Alaska and winters in southern North America, Central America, the West Indies and South America. Taxonomy ...

snowy egret The snowy egret (''Egretta thula'') is a small white heron. The genus name comes from Provençal French for the little egret, , which is a diminutive of , 'heron'. The species name ''thula'' is the Araucano term for the black-necked swan, app ...

black-crowned night-heron The black-crowned night heron (''Nycticorax nycticorax''), or black-capped night heron, commonly shortened to just night heron in Eurasia, is a medium-sized heron found throughout a large part of the world, including parts of Europe, Asia, and ...

Andean coot The Andean coot (''Fulica ardesiaca''), also known as the slate-colored coot, is a species of bird in subfamily Rallinae of family Rallidae, the rails, gallinules, and coots. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru ...

common gallinule The common gallinule (''Gallinula galeata'') is a bird in the family Rallidae. It was split from the common moorhen by the American Ornithologists' Union in July 2011. It lives around well-vegetated marshes, ponds, canals, and other wetlands in t ...

, plumbeous rail, various

duck Duck is the common name for numerous species of waterfowl in the family Anatidae. Ducks are generally smaller and shorter-necked than swans and geese, which are members of the same family. Divided among several subfamilies, they are a form t ...

wren-like rushbird The wren-like rushbird (''Phleocryptes melanops'') is a species of bird in the Furnariinae subfamily of the ovenbird family Furnariidae. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.Remsen, J. V., Jr., J. I. A ...

many-colored rush-tyrant The many-colored rush tyrant or many-coloured rush tyrant (''Tachuris rubrigastra'') is a small passerine bird of South America belonging to the tyrant flycatcher family, Tyrannidae. It is the only member of the genus ''Tachuris'' and is sometim ...

, and

yellow-winged blackbird The yellow-winged blackbird (''Agelasticus thilius'') is a species of bird in the family Icteridae. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. Its natural habitats are swamps, intertidal marshes, and pasturela ...

Titicaca is home to 24 described species of

freshwater snail Freshwater snails are gastropod mollusks which live in fresh water. There are many different families. They are found throughout the world in various habitats, ranging from ephemeral pools to the largest lakes, and from small seeps and springs ...

s (15 endemics, including several tiny ''

Heleobia ''Heleobia'' is a genus of small freshwater and brackish water snails with a gill and an operculum, aquatic gastropod mollusks in the family Cochliopidae and the superfamily Truncatelloidea.Bouchet, P.; Gofas, S. (2015). Heleobia. Accessed thro ...

'' spp.) and less than half a dozen

bivalve Bivalvia (), in previous centuries referred to as the Lamellibranchiata and Pelecypoda, is a class of marine and freshwater molluscs that have laterally compressed bodies enclosed by a shell consisting of two hinged parts. As a group, bival ...

s (all in family

Sphaeriidae Sphaeriidae is a family of small to minute freshwater bivalve molluscs in the order Sphaeriida. In the US, they are commonly known as pea clams or fingernail clams. Heard, William H. 1977. Reproduction of fingernail clams (Sphaeriidae: ''Sphaeri ...

), but in general these are very poorly known and their

taxonomy Taxonomy is the practice and science of categorization or classification. A taxonomy (or taxonomical classification) is a scheme of classification, especially a hierarchical classification, in which things are organized into groups or types. ...

is in need of a review. The lake also has an endemic

species flock In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...

amphipod Amphipoda is an order of malacostracan crustaceans with no carapace and generally with laterally compressed bodies. Amphipods range in size from and are mostly detritivores or scavengers. There are more than 9,900 amphipod species so far descr ...

s consisting of 11 ''

Hyalella ''Hyalella'' is a genus of amphipods found in the Americas. They are mainly found in freshwater habitats. Species The following species are recognised in the genus ''Hyalella'': *'' Hyalella anophthalma'' Ruffo, 1957 *'' Hyalella araucana'' ...

'' (an additional Titicaca ''Hyalella'' species is nonendemic). Reeds and other aquatic vegetation are widespread in Lake Titicaca. Totora sedges grow in water shallower than , less frequently to , but macrophytes, notably '' Chara'' and ''

Potamogeton ''Potamogeton'' is a genus of aquatic, mostly freshwater, plants of the family Potamogetonaceae. Most are known by the common name pondweed, although many unrelated plants may be called pondweed, such as Canadian pondweed (''Elodea canadensis'' ...

'', occur down to .Iltis, A., and P. Mourguiart (1992). Higher Plants: Distribution and biomass. pp. 242–253 in: Dejoux, C., eds. (1992). Lake Titicaca: a synthesis of limnological knowledge. In sheltered shallow waters, such as the harbour of

Puno Puno (Aymara and qu, Punu) is a city in southeastern Peru, located on the shore of Lake Titicaca. It is the capital city of the Puno Region and the Puno Province with a population of approximately 140,839 (2015 estimate). The city was establish ...

, ''

Azolla ''Azolla'' (mosquito fern, duckweed fern, fairy moss, water fern) is a genus of seven species of aquatic ferns in the family Salviniaceae. They are extremely reduced in form and specialized, looking nothing like other typical ferns but more rese ...

'', ''

Elodea ''Elodea'' is a genus of 6 species of aquatic plants often called the waterweeds described as a genus in 1803. Classified in the frog’s-bit family ( Hydrocharitaceae), ''Elodea'' is native to the Americas and is also widely used as aquarium ve ...

'', ''

Lemna ''Lemna'' is a genus of free-floating aquatic plants referred to by the common name "Lemnoideae, duckweed". They are morphologically divergent members of the arum family Araceae. These rapidly growing plants have found uses as a Model organism, m ...

'' and ''

Myriophyllum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...

'' are common.

Geology

The Tinajani Basin, in which Lake Titicaca lies, is an intermontane basin. This basin is a pull-apart basin created by strike-slip movement along regional faults starting in the late

Oligocene The Oligocene ( ) is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene Period and extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present ( to ). As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the epoch are well identified but the ...

and ending in the late

Miocene The Miocene ( ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and means "less recen ...

. The initial development of the Tinajani Basin is indicated by

volcanic rock Volcanic rock (often shortened to volcanics in scientific contexts) is a rock formed from lava erupted from a volcano. In other words, it differs from other igneous rock by being of volcanic origin. Like all rock types, the concept of volcanic r ...

s, which accumulated between 27 and 20 million years ago within this basin. They lie upon an angular

unconformity An unconformity is a buried erosional or non-depositional surface separating two rock masses or strata of different ages, indicating that sediment deposition was not continuous. In general, the older layer was exposed to erosion for an interval o ...

which cuts across pre-basin

strata In geology and related fields, a stratum ( : strata) is a layer of rock or sediment characterized by certain lithologic properties or attributes that distinguish it from adjacent layers from which it is separated by visible surfaces known as ei ...

Lacustrine A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, surrounded by land, and distinct from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, although, like the much larger ...

sediment Sediment is a naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of wind, water, or ice or by the force of gravity acting on the particles. For example, sand an ...

s of the Lower Tinajani Formation, which are exposed within the Tinajani Basin, demonstrate the presence of a pre-Quaternary, ancestral Lake Titicaca within it between 18 and 14 million years ago (Mya).Marocco, R., R. Baudino, and A. Lavenu, 1995, ''Intermontane Late Paleogene–Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru: Sedimentologic and Tectonic Characteristics.'' in A.J. Tankard, R. Suárez Soruco, and H.J. Welsink, eds., pp. 597–613, Petroleum basins of South America: Memoir no. 62. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Oklahoma. Little is known about the prehistory of Lake Titicaca between 14 Mya and 370,000 BP because the lake sediments dating to this period lie buried beneath the bottom of Lake Titicaca and have not yet been sampled by continuous coring.Fritz, S. C., P. A. Baker, G. O. Seltzer, A. Ballantyne, P. Tapia, H. Cheng, and R. L. Edwards, 2007, ''Quaternary glaciation and hydrologic variation in the South American tropics as reconstructed from the Lake Titicaca drilling project.'' Quaternary Research 68(3):410–420. The Lake Titicaca drilling project recovered a 136-m-long

drill core A modern core drill is a drill specifically designed to remove a cylinder of material, much like a hole saw. The material left inside the drill bit is referred to as the ''core''. Core drills used in metal are called annular cutters. Core dri ...

of sediments from the bottom of Lake Titicaca at a depth of and at a location just east of Isla del Sol. This core contains a continuous record of lake sedimentation and paleoenvironmental conditions for Lake Titicaca back to about 370,000 BP. For this period of time, Lake Titicaca was typically fresher and had higher lake levels during periods of expanded regional glaciation that corresponded to global

glacial period A glacial period (alternatively glacial or glaciation) is an interval of time (thousands of years) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate betw ...

s. During periods of reduced regional glaciation that corresponded to global

interglacial An interglacial period (or alternatively interglacial, interglaciation) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age. The current Holocene in ...

periods, Lake Titicaca had typically low lake levels.Fritz, S.C., P.A. Baker, P. Tapia, T. Spanbauer, and K. Westover (2012) ''Evolution of the Lake Titicaca basin and its diatom flora over the last ~370,000 years.'' Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 317–318:93–103. Lacustrine sediments and associated

terrace Terrace may refer to: Landforms and construction * Fluvial terrace, a natural, flat surface that borders and lies above the floodplain of a stream or river * Terrace, a street suffix * Terrace, the portion of a lot between the public sidewalk a ...

s provide evidence for the past existence of five major prehistoric lakes that occupied the Tinajani Basin during the

Pliocene The Pliocene ( ; also Pleiocene) is the epoch in the geologic time scale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( , often referred to as the ''Ice age'') is the geological Epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fina ...

. Within the northern Altiplano (Tinajani Basin), these prehistoric lakes were

Lake Mataro Lake Mataro is an ancient lake in the Andes. It formed over the northern Altiplano at an altitude of and extended over the central Altiplano. It is one of the ancient lakes of the Altiplano like Lake Minchin, Lake Ballivian and Lake Cabana. It e ...

at an elevation of ,

Lake Cabana Lake Cabana is an ancient lake in the Altiplano. The lake reached a water level of over the central and northern Altiplano, above the current lake levels of Lake Titicaca. The Capalla- Ulloma sill, which separates the Altiplano into a northern ...

at an elevation of ,

Lake Ballivián Lake Ballivián is an ancient lake in the Altiplano of South America and is named after the Bolivian scholar Don Manuel Vicente Ballivian. It is part of a series of lakes which developed in the Titicaca basin along with Lake Mataro and Lake Cabana ...

at an elevation of , Lake (North) Minchin at an elevation of , and Lake (North) Tauca at an elevation . The age of Lake Mataro is uncertain—it may date back to the Late Pliocene. Lake Cabana possibly dates to the Middle Pleistocene. Lake Ballivián existed between 120,000 and 98,000 BP. Two high lake stands, between 72,000 and 68,000 BP and 44,000–34,000 BP, have been discerned for

Lake Minchin Lake Minchin is a name of an ancient lake in the Altiplano of South America. It existed where today the Salar de Uyuni, Salar de Coipasa and Lake Poopó lie. It was formerly considered the highest lake in the Altiplano but research indicated that ...

within the Altiplano. Another ancient lake in the area is Ouki. The high lake levels of

Lake Tauca Lake Tauca is a former lake in the Altiplano of Bolivia. It is also known as Lake Pocoyu for its constituent lakes: Lake Poopó, Salar de Coipasa and Salar de Uyuni. The lake covered large parts of the southern Altiplano between the Eastern Cordi ...

have been dated as having occurred between 18,100 and 14,100 BP.Clapperton, C. M., 1993, ''Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of South America.'' Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 779 pp.Rouchy, J. M., M. Servant, M. Fournier, and C. Causse, 1996, ''Extensive carbonate algal bioherms in Upper Pleistocene saline lakes of the central Altiplano of Bolivia'': Sedimentology 43(6):973–993.Placzek, C., J. Quade, and P. J. Patchett, 2006, ''Geochronology and stratigraphy of Late Pleistocene lake cycles on the Southern Bolivian Altiplano: implications for causes of tropical climate change.'' Geological Society of America Bulletin 118(5-6):515–532.

Climate

Lake Titicaca has a borderline subtropical highland/

alpine climate Alpine climate is the typical weather (climate) for elevations above the tree line, where trees fail to grow due to cold. This climate is also referred to as a mountain climate or highland climate. Definition There are multiple definitions of ...

with cool to cold temperatures for most of the year. The average annual precipitation is 610 mm (24 in) mostly falling in summer thunderstorms. Winters are dry with very cold nights and mornings and warm afternoons. Below are the average temperatures of the town of Juliaca, in the northern part of the lake.

Islands

Uros

The "Floating Islands" are small, man-made islands constructed by the

Uros The Uru or Uros ( ure, Qhas Qut suñi) are an indigenous people of Bolivia. They live on an approximate and still growing 120 self-fashioned floating islands in Lake Titicaca near Puno. They form three main groups: the Uru-Chipaya, Uru-Murato ...

(or Uru) people from layers of cut totora, a thick, buoyant sedge that grows abundantly in the shallows of Lake Titicaca. The Uros harvest the sedges that naturally grow on the lake's banks to make the islands by continuously adding sedges to the surface. According to legend, the Uru people originated in the Amazon and migrated to the area of Lake Titicaca in the

pre-Columbian era In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the Migration to the New World, original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization of the Americas, European colonization, w ...

, where they were oppressed by the local population and were unable to secure land of their own. They built the sedge islands, which could be moved into deep water or to different parts of the lake, as necessary, for greater safety from their hostile neighbors on land. Golden in color, many of the islands measure about , and the largest are roughly half the size of a football field. Each island contains several thatched houses, typically belonging to members of a single extended family. Some of the islands have watchtowers and other buildings, also constructed of sedges. Historically, most of the Uros islands were located near the middle of the lake, about from the shore; however, in 1986, after a major storm devastated the islands, many Uros rebuilt closer to shore. , about 1,200 Uros lived on an archipelago of 60 artificial islands, clustering in the western corner of the lake near Puno, Titicaca's major Peruvian port town. The islands have become one of Peru's tourist attractions, allowing the Uros to supplement their hunting and fishing by conveying visitors to the islands by motorboat and selling handicrafts.

Amantani

Amantani is another small island on Lake Titicaca populated by

Quechua Quechua may refer to: *Quechua people, several indigenous ethnic groups in South America, especially in Peru *Quechuan languages, a Native South American language family spoken primarily in the Andes, derived from a common ancestral language **So ...

speakers. About 4,000 people live in 10 communities on the roughly circular island. Two mountain peaks, called Pachatata (Father Earth) and Pachamama (Mother Earth) and ancient ruins are on the top of both peaks. The hillsides that rise up from the lake are terraced and planted with

wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...

potatoes The potato is a starchy food, a tuber of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'' and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Wild potato species can be found from the southern United ...

, and vegetables. Most of the small fields are worked by hand. Long stone fences divide the fields, and cattle and sheep graze on the hillsides. No cars and no hotels are on the island. Since machines are not allowed on the island, all agriculture is done by hand. A few small stores sell basic goods, and a health clinic and six schools are found. Electricity was produced by a generator and provided limited power a few hours each day, but with the rising price of petroleum, they no longer use the generator. Most families use candles or flashlights powered by batteries or hand cranks. Small solar panels have recently been installed on some homes. Some of the families on Amantani open their homes to tourists for overnight stays and provide cooked meals, arranged through tour guides. The families who do so are required to have a special room set aside for the tourists and must conform to a code specified by the tourist companies that help them. Guests typically take food staples (cooking oil, rice, etc., but no sugar products, as they have no dental facilities) as a gift, or school supplies for the children on the island. The islanders hold nightly traditional dance shows for the tourists, where they offer to dress them up in their traditional clothes and allow them to participate.

Taquile

Taquile Taquile ( es, Isla de Taquile, ; qu, Intika) is an island on the Peruvian side of Lake Titicaca 45 km offshore from the city of Puno. About 2,200 people live on the island, which is in size (maximum measurements), with an area of . The highe ...

is a hilly island located east of Puno. It is narrow and long and was used as a prison during the Spanish Colony and into the 20th century. In 1970, it became property of the Taquile people, who have inhabited the island since then. The current population is around 2,200. The island is in size (maximum measurements), with an area of . The highest point of the island is above sea level, and the main village is at . Pre-Inca ruins are found on the highest part of the island, and agricultural terraces on hillsides. From the hillsides of Taquile, one has a view of the tops of Bolivian mountains. The inhabitants, known as ''Taquileños'', are southern Quechua speakers. Taquile is especially known for its handicraft tradition, which is regarded as being of the highest quality. "Taquile and Its Textile Art" were honored by being proclaimed "

Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity The Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity was made by the Director-General of UNESCO starting in 2001 to raise awareness of intangible cultural heritage and encourage local communities to protect them and t ...

" by UNESCO. Knitting is exclusively performed by males, starting at age eight. The women exclusively make yarn and weave. Taquileans are also known for having created an innovative, community-controlled tourism model, offering home stays, transportation, and restaurants to tourists. Ever since tourism started coming to Taquile in the 1970s, the ''Taquileños'' have slowly lost control over the mass day-tourism operated by non-Taquileans. They have thus developed alternative tourism models, including lodging for groups, cultural activities, and local guides who have completed a 2-year training program. The local Travel Agency, Munay Taquile, has been established to regain control over tourism. The people in Taquile run their society based on community collectivism and on the Inca moral code ''ama sua, ama llulla, ama qhilla,'' (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy). The island is divided into six sectors or ''suyus'' for crop rotation purposes. The economy is based on fishing, terraced farming based on potato cultivation, and tourist-generated income from the roughly 40,000 tourists who visit each year.

Isla del Sol

Situated on the Bolivian side of the lake with regular boat links to the town of

Copacabana, Bolivia Copacabana is the main Bolivian town on the shore of Lake Titicaca. The town has a large 16th-century shrine, the Basilica of Our Lady of Copacabana, dedicated to Our Lady of Copacabana, the patron saint of Bolivia. The town is a tourism desti ...

("Island of the Sun") is one of the largest islands of the lake. Geographically, the terrain is harsh; it is a rocky, hilly island. No motor vehicles or paved roads are on the island. The main economic activity of the approximately 800 families on the island is farming, with fishing and tourism augmenting the subsistence economy. Over 180 ruins remain on the island. Most of these date to the Inca period around the 15th century AD. Many hills on the island contain terraces, which adapt steep and rocky terrain to agriculture. Among the ruins on the island are the Sacred Rock, a labyrinth-like building called

Chinkana Chinkana (Quechua for labyrinth)Academía Mayor de la Lengua Quechua, Quechua-Spanish dictionary, Cusco, Peru, 2005 (Quechua-Spanish dictionary) is an archaeological site in Bolivia situated on the Isla del Sol, an island of Lake Titicaca. It is l ...

, Kasa Pata, and Pilco Kaima. In the religion of the Incas, the

sun god A solar deity or sun deity is a deity who represents the Sun, or an aspect of it. Such deities are usually associated with power and strength. Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms. The ...

was believed to have been born here. During 1987–92,

Johan Reinhard Johan Reinhard (born December 13, 1943) is an Explorer-in-Residence at the National Geographic Society. He is also a senior research fellow at The Mountain Institute, a visiting professor at Catholic University, Salta, Argentina, an honorary p ...

directed underwater archaeological investigations off of the Island of the Sun, recovering Inca and Tiahuanaco offerings. These artifacts are currently on display in the site museum of the village of Challapampa.

Isla de la Luna

Isla de la Luna Isla de la Luna (translation: "Island of the Moon") is an island in La Paz Department, Bolivia. It is situated in Lake Titicaca, east of Isla del Sol ("Island of the Sun"). Legends in Inca mythology refer to the island as the location where Vira ...

is situated east from the bigger Isla del Sol. Both islands belong to the La Paz Department of Bolivia. According to legends that refer to

Inca mythology Inca mythology or religion includes many stories and legends that attempt to explain or symbolize Inca beliefs. Basic beliefs Scholarly research demonstrates that Runa (Quechua speakers) belief systems were integrated with their view of the c ...

Isla de la Luna (Spanish for "island of the moon") is where

Viracocha Viracocha is the great creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. Full name and some spelling alternatives are Wiracocha, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, and Con-Tici (also spelled Kon-Tiki, the source of the ...

commanded the rising of the moon. Ruins of a supposed Inca nunnery (Mamakuna) occupy the oriental shore. Archaeological excavations indicate that the

peoples (around 650–1000 AD) built a major temple on the Island of the Moon. Pottery vessels of local dignitaries dating from this period have been excavated on islands in Lake Titicaca. Two of them were found in the 19th century and are now in the

British Museum The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...

in London. The structures seen on the island today were built by the Inca (''circa'' 1450–1532) directly over the earlier Tiwanaku ones.

Suriki

Suriki lies in the Bolivian part of lake Titicaca (in the southeastern part also known as lake Wiñaymarka). Suriki is thought to be the last place where the art of

reed boat Reed boats and rafts, along with dugout canoes and other rafts, are among the oldest known types of boats. Often used as traditional fishing boats, they are still used in a few places around the world, though they have generally been replaced with ...

construction survives, at least as late as 1998. Craftsmen from Suriqui helped

Thor Heyerdahl Thor Heyerdahl KStJ (; 6 October 1914 – 18 April 2002) was a Norwegian adventurer and ethnographer with a background in zoology, botany and geography. Heyerdahl is notable for his ''Kon-Tiki'' expedition in 1947, in which he sailed 8,000&nb ...

in the construction of several of his projects, such as the reed boats ''

Ra II Thor Heyerdahl KStJ (; 6 October 1914 – 18 April 2002) was a Norwegian adventurer and ethnographer with a background in zoology, botany and geography. Heyerdahl is notable for his ''Kon-Tiki'' expedition in 1947, in which he sailed 8,000&nb ...

'' and ''Tigris'', and a balloon gondola.

Transport

The

dual gauge In railway engineering, "gauge" is the transverse distance between the inner surfaces of the heads of two rails, which for the vast majority of railway lines is the number of rails in place. However, it is sometimes necessary for track to c ...

car float A railroad car float or rail barge is a specialised form of lighter with railway tracks mounted on its deck used to move rolling stock across water obstacles, or to locations they could not otherwise go. An unpowered barge, it is towed by a tugb ...

''Manco Capac'' links

PeruRail PeruRail is a railway operator providing tourist, freight, and charter services in southern Peru. It was founded in 1999 by two Peruvian entrepreneurs and the British company Sea Containers. The main line between the port of Matarani, Arequipa, ...

's line at Puno with the Bolivian railways' line at

Guaqui Guaqui is a railhead and port in Bolivia on Lake Titicaca. A ferry (a car float) connects with the Peruvian railhead and port on Puno. It served as location of Inca ruins prior to the arrival of the Spanish. The towns current church sites on what ...

History

The lake has had a number of steamships, each of which was built in the United Kingdom in "knock down" form with bolts and nuts, disassembled into many hundreds of pieces, transported to the lake, and then riveted together and launched. In 1862 Thames Ironworks on the

River Thames The River Thames ( ), known alternatively in parts as the The Isis, River Isis, is a river that flows through southern England including London. At , it is the longest river entirely in England and the Longest rivers of the United Kingdom, se ...

built the iron-hulled

sister ship A sister ship is a ship of the same class or of virtually identical design to another ship. Such vessels share a nearly identical hull and superstructure layout, similar size, and roughly comparable features and equipment. They often share a ...

s SS ''Yavari'' and SS ''Yapura'' under contract to the

James Watt James Watt (; 30 January 1736 (19 January 1736 OS) – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776, which was fun ...

Foundry of

Birmingham Birmingham ( ) is a city and metropolitan borough in the metropolitan county of West Midlands in England. It is the second-largest city in the United Kingdom with a population of 1.145 million in the city proper, 2.92 million in the West ...

. The ships were designed as combined cargo, passenger, and

gunboat A gunboat is a naval watercraft designed for the express purpose of carrying one or more guns to bombard coastal targets, as opposed to those military craft designed for naval warfare, or for ferrying troops or supplies. History Pre-steam ...

s for the

Peruvian Navy The Peruvian Navy ( es, link=no, Marina de Guerra del Perú, abbreviated MGP) is the branch of the Peruvian Armed Forces tasked with surveillance, patrol and defense on lakes, rivers and the Pacific Ocean up to from the Peruvian littoral. Addit ...

. After several years' delay in delivery from the Pacific coast to the lake, ''Yavari'' was launched in 1870 and ''Yapura'' in 1873. ''Yavari'' was long, but in 1914 her hull was lengthened for extra cargo capacity and she was re-engined as a

motor vessel A motor ship or motor vessel is a ship propelled by an internal combustion engine, usually a diesel engine. The names of motor ships are often prefixed with MS, M/S, MV or M/V. Engines for motorships were developed during the 1890s, and by th ...

. In November 1883, during the final phase of the

War of the Pacific The War of the Pacific ( es, link=no, Guerra del Pacífico), also known as the Saltpeter War ( es, link=no, Guerra del salitre) and by multiple other names, was a war between Chile and a Bolivian–Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. Fought ...

, the Chilean military command sent the to the lake, via railroad, from

Mollendo Mollendo is a town bordering the Pacific Ocean in southern Peru. It is located in the Arequipa Region and is the capital of both the Islay Province and the Mollendo District. Mollendo was the main port in the Peruvian southern coast until Matar ...

to control the area. It was the first warship to navigate the lake. In 1892,

William Denny and Brothers William Denny and Brothers Limited, often referred to simply as Denny, was a Scottish shipbuilding company. History The shipbuilding interests of the Denny family date back to William Denny (born 1779), for whom ships are recorded being built ...

Dumbarton Dumbarton (; also sco, Dumbairton; ) is a town in West Dunbartonshire, Scotland, on the north bank of the River Clyde where the River Leven flows into the Clyde estuary. In 2006, it had an estimated population of 19,990. Dumbarton was the ca ...

on the

River Clyde The River Clyde ( gd, Abhainn Chluaidh, , sco, Clyde Watter, or ) is a river that flows into the Firth of Clyde in Scotland. It is the ninth-longest river in the United Kingdom, and the third-longest in Scotland. It runs through the major cit ...

in Scotland built . She was long and was launched on the lake in 1893. In 1905,

Earle's Shipbuilding Earle's Shipbuilding was an engineering company that was based in Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, England from 1845 to 1932. Earle Brothers The company was started in Hull in 1845 by two brothers, Charles and William Earle. The firm was made ...

Kingston upon Hull Kingston upon Hull, usually abbreviated to Hull, is a port city and unitary authority in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It lies upon the River Hull at its confluence with the Humber Estuary, inland from the North Sea and south-east ...

on the

Humber The Humber is a large tidal estuary on the east coast of Northern England. It is formed at Trent Falls, Faxfleet, by the confluence of the tidal rivers Ouse and Trent. From there to the North Sea, it forms part of the boundary between th ...

built . By then, a railway served the lake, so the ship was delivered in kit form by rail. At long and 1,809 tons (1,994 U.S. tons), ''Inca'' was the lake's largest ship thus far. In the 1920s, Earle's supplied a new bottom for the ship, which also was delivered in kit form. Trade continued to grow, so in 1930, Earle's built . Her parts were landed at the Pacific Ocean port of

and brought by rail to the lake port of Puno. At long and 2,200 tons (425 U.S. tons), she was considerably larger than the ''Inca'', so first a new

slipway A slipway, also known as boat ramp or launch or boat deployer, is a ramp on the shore by which ships or boats can be moved to and from the water. They are used for building and repairing ships and boats, and for launching and retrieving small ...

had to be built to build her. She was launched in November 1931. In 1975, ''Yavari'' and ''Yapura'' were returned to the Peruvian Navy, which converted ''Yapura'' into a

hospital ship A hospital ship is a ship designated for primary function as a floating medical treatment facility or hospital. Most are operated by the military forces (mostly navies) of various countries, as they are intended to be used in or near war zones. ...

and renamed her BAP ''Puno''. The Navy discarded ''Yavari'', but in 1987, charitable interests bought her and started restoring her. She is now moored at Puno Bay and provides static tourist accommodation while her restoration continues. ''Coya'' was beached in 1984, but restored as a floating restaurant in 2001. ''Inca'' survived until 1994, when she was broken up. ''Ollanta'' is no longer in scheduled service, but PeruRail has been leasing her for tourist charter operations.

Notes

References

External links

Lake Titicaca – The Highest Navigable Lake in the World

Management issues in the Lake Titicaca and Lake Poopo system: Importance of developing a water budget

Peru Cultural Society – Lake Titicaca History
{{DEFAULTSORT:Titicaca Ancient lakes Mountain lakes Ramsar sites in Bolivia Ramsar sites in Peru Lakes of Peru Lakes of La Paz Department (Bolivia) Bolivia–Peru border International lakes of South America Lakes of Puno Region Altiplano