The Throne of Maximian (or Maximianus) is a ''
cathedra
A ''cathedra'' is the raised throne of a bishop in the early Christian basilica. When used with this meaning, it may also be called the bishop's throne. With time, the related term ''cathedral'' became synonymous with the "seat", or principa ...
'' (episcopal
throne
A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign on state occasions; or the seat occupied by a pope or bishop on ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the monar ...
) that was made for
Archbishop Maximianus of Ravenna and is now on display at the
Archiepiscopal Museum, Ravenna
The Archiepiscopal Museum ( it, Museo Arcivescovile) is located in Ravenna, Italy, next to the Baptistry of Neon and behind the Duomo of Ravenna. In the museum relics of early Christians, Christian Ravenna are preserved, including fragments of mo ...
. It is generally agreed that the throne was carved in the Greek East of the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
and shipped to
Ravenna
Ravenna ( , , also ; rgn, Ravèna) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire from 408 until its collapse in 476. It then served as the cap ...
, but there has long been scholarly debate over whether it was made in
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
or
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandria ...
.
The style of the throne is a mixture of
Early Christian art
Early Christian art and architecture or Paleochristian art is the art produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to, depending on the definition used, sometime between 260 and 525. In practice, id ...
and that of the First Golden Age of
Byzantine art
Byzantine art comprises the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the Eastern Roman Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the decline of Rome and lasted ...
. It is made of
carved ivory panels, with frames of winding vines and grapevines, on a wooden frame.
The throne itself is large with a high semi-circular back and may have held a
jewelled cross
A ''crux gemmata'' (Latin for jewelled cross) is a form of cross typical of Early Christian and Early Medieval art, where the cross, or at least its front side, is principally decorated with jewels. In an actual cross, rather than a painted image ...
or
Gospel book
A Gospel Book, Evangelion, or Book of the Gospels (Greek: , ''Evangélion'') is a codex or bound volume containing one or more of the four Gospels of the Christian New Testament – normally all four – centering on the life of Jesus of Nazar ...
for some of the time.
The ivory carvings are done in
relief
Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term ''relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the ...
and the panels depict important biblical figures. The back of the throne shows scenes of the
Life of Christ
The life of Jesus in the New Testament is primarily outlined in the four canonical gospels, which includes his genealogy and Nativity of Jesus, nativity, Ministry of Jesus, public ministry, Passion of Jesus, passion, prophecy, Resurrection of ...
, the sides include scenes of the Story of
Joseph
Joseph is a common male given name, derived from the Hebrew Yosef (יוֹסֵף). "Joseph" is used, along with "Josef", mostly in English, French and partially German languages. This spelling is also found as a variant in the languages of the mo ...
from the
Book of Genesis
The Book of Genesis (from Greek ; Hebrew: בְּרֵאשִׁית ''Bəreʾšīt'', "In hebeginning") is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its Hebrew name is the same as its first word, ( "In the beginning") ...
, and on the front of the throne are the
Four evangelists around
John the Baptist
John the Baptist or , , or , ;Wetterau, Bruce. ''World history''. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1994. syc, ܝܘܿܚܲܢܵܢ ܡܲܥܡܕ݂ܵܢܵܐ, Yoḥanān Maʿmḏānā; he, יוחנן המטביל, Yohanān HaMatbil; la, Ioannes Bapti ...
, who is holding a medallion with the
Lamb of God
Lamb of God ( el, Ἀμνὸς τοῦ Θεοῦ, Amnòs toû Theoû; la, Agnus Dei, ) is a title for Jesus that appears in the Gospel of John. It appears at John 1:29, where John the Baptist sees Jesus and exclaims, "Behold the Lamb of God wh ...
and Maximian's name above him.
Historical context
![Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 005](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna_005.jpg)
Maximian was "a poor
deacon
A deacon is a member of the diaconate, an office in Christian churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. Major Christian churches, such as the Catholic Churc ...
of
Pola Pola or POLA may refer to:
People
*House of Pola, an Italian noble family
*Pola Alonso (1923–2004), Argentine actress
*Pola Brändle (born 1980), German artist and photographer
*Pola Gauguin (1883–1961), Danish painter
*Pola Gojawiczyńska (18 ...
who rose to a high position through his political adroitness" as a protégé of
Justinian I
Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565.
His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovat ...
. He had not been wanted as archbishop by the people of Ravenna, but "by shrewd maneuvres he overcame their opposition, and won their respect by his discretion, generosity, and great enterprises of church building and decoration". He is shown, and named in a large ''
titulus'', in the famous mosaic in the
Basilica of San Vitale
The Basilica of San Vitale is a late antique church in Ravenna, Italy. The sixth-century church is an important surviving example of early Christian Byzantine art and architecture. It is one of eight structures in Ravenna inscribed on the UNESCO ...
of Justinian surrounded by his ministers and bodyguards (matched by a panel for the Empress). His throne can be dated to about 545–553, and is believed to have been carved in Constantinople, and shipped to Ravenna. It was probably commissioned by Justinian as a gift for Maximianus for becoming the new archbishop and to encourage and strengthen his authority because he was not always popular.
The throne portrays Justinian's presence in Ravenna, which had been the western capital of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. Maximian may well have acted as regent for the Emperor in the remaining Byzantine territory in Italy, and it is possible that it was intended to be left as an
empty throne
The Hetoimasia, Etimasia (Greek ἑτοιμασία, "preparation"), prepared throne, Preparation of the Throne, ready throne or Throne of the Second Coming is the Christian version of the symbolic subject of the empty throne found in the art of t ...
symbolizing the authority of God or the Emperor, or both. Many had also believed that the throne was not intended to be of personal use by the Archbishop, but was to be an empty throne that symbolized the imperial or divine power.
The cathedra was positioned in the center of the apse in the cathedral with the benches of assisting priests on either side.
The throne was also carried during religious ceremonies. The decorated back and side of the throne suggested that the throne was designed to be moved out of the apse and placed near the chancel while the bishop addressed the congregation, instead of being left stationary against the wall.
The gift was also for the dedication of San Vitale;
Justinian hired 6th-century Byzantine artists, who were summoned by the court to Constantinople from around the Empire, to create this piece.
The style of the ivories and even the use of ivory itself suggest that the throne belongs to the School of Ivory Carving. It is also suggested, due to differing styles within the throne, that some components or even the entire throne was possibly carved in Alexandria.
However, it is argued that the cult of St Menas was not just confined to Egypt, but there was a church dedicated to him in Constantinople.
One argument advanced for an origin in Egypt is the local relevance of the story of Joseph, which is given such prominence, but
Meyer Schapiro
Meyer Schapiro (23 September 1904 – 3 March 1996) was a Lithuanian-born American art historian known for developing new art historical methodologies that incorporated an interdisciplinary approach to the study of works of art. An expert on earl ...
demonstrates an artistic and literary tradition using Joseph, who rose to be minister to his
pharaoh
Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: ''pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until the an ...
, as a symbol for the role a bishop, which at this period typically involved a considerable role in civil government.
Technical analysis
![Nativity (Throne of Maximianus)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Nativity_%28Throne_of_Maximianus%29.jpg)
Ivory carving was used in many luxury Byzantine sculptures including
diptych
A diptych (; from the Greek δίπτυχον, ''di'' "two" + '' ptychē'' "fold") is any object with two flat plates which form a pair, often attached by hinge. For example, the standard notebook and school exercise book of the ancient world w ...
s such as that showing the
Adoration of the Magi
The Adoration of the Magi or Adoration of the Kings is the name traditionally given to the subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the three Magi, represented as kings, especially in the West, having found Jesus by following a star, ...
and the
Barberini Diptych, representing Justinian as Holy Emperor. The throne is the largest single Late Antique work of art made of ivory, and derives attraction from its simple and proportionate lines along with its elaborate carvings.
The size of the throne and clear stylistic variations between the panels suggest that it involved the work of several 6th century Byzantine artists. The technique of the panels suggests that at least two different artists of unequal skills had executed the carvings due to differing styles. Although the general style of the panels can be recognized, the panels on the front are sketchy compared to the scenes on the side and back of the chair, which are very bold and rather careless.
The dimensions are 22" (0.6m) wide x 4’11" (1.5m) high. Of the panels on the back of the throne, only 16 of the 24 panels have survived or been restored.
The piece is currently preserved and displayed in the Museo Arcivescovile, which also holds the Chapel of Sant’Adrea and works from the old cathedral.
The Byzantine Church did not favor sculpture in the round, fearing that it would recall idols from Greek and Roman pagan religion.
Thus, small carvings in relief were created and allowed. This style of carving involves carving figures that project slightly from the background rather than free standing. This creates a piece with a mixture of 2 and 3 dimensionality.
The two different techniques of two different artists could be possibly explained by the pandemic plague that raged that time (c.ad.540, the Plague of Justinian). The plague spread to the Roman Empire from the East Africa through the Ivory route and the ivory workshop artists could be among early victims of the disease. The deterioration of the technique therefore could be explained by the decease of the initial principal master and the possible desire of the Emperor to finish the piece as soon as possible anyway.
Formal and stylistic analysis
The Throne of Maximianus is a key work in what has been called the "Justinianic style" of early Byzantine art. The ivory exterior of the throne is conceived as a series of framed panels, though the apparent structural roles of the sections does not entirely reflect their actual function. An unusual feature is that the depth of the relief is generally deeper in the decorative "framing" sections than in the framed scenes. The overall scheme is extremely rich, if demonstrating a certain ''
horror vacui''. The artists adapted complicated patterns and designs from textiles and carvings of the Near East and conveyed them in their artworks.
The framing elements of the throne are decorated with scrolling vines typical of Early Christian art,
"inhabited" with animals and birds within the curling branches of vines.
Many scenes carved on the Throne of Maximianus, such as the miracle of Christ and the history of Joseph, can also be found in a variety of other works, including mosaics and manuscripts. The
Four Evangelists portrayed on the front of the throne was also a very common motif used throughout the Medieval period. The figures show a strong preference for ''
contrapposto
''Contrapposto'' () is an Italian term that means "counterpoise". It is used in the visual arts to describe a human figure standing with most of its weight on one foot, so that its shoulders and arms twist off-axis from the hips and legs in the a ...
'' poses, "an inheritance from Greek art, but which here become a kind of mannerism".
Individual scenes' similarities to other work of arts
*"Scene of Joseph assured by an Angel, occurs on an ivory casket in the
Victoria and Albert Museum
The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and nam ...
, and on a
sarcophagus
A sarcophagus (plural sarcophagi or sarcophaguses) is a box-like funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word ''sarcophagus'' comes from the Greek ...
from Le Puy"
*"
Annunciation
The Annunciation (from Latin '), also referred to as the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Annunciation of Our Lady, or the Annunciation of the Lord, is the Christian celebration of the biblical tale of the announcement by the ange ...
scene, occurs on the ivory book-covers of the
Etschmiadzin Gospels, and the book covers in the
Bibliotheque Nationale"
*"The test of the virgin by Water, occurs on the Uwaroff ivory and the fragment of the
Murano
Murano is a series of islands linked by bridges in the Venetian Lagoon, northern Italy. It lies about north of Venice and measures about across with a population of just over 5,000 (2004 figures). It is famous for its glass making. It was on ...
covers in the Stroganoff Collection"
*One of 26 mosaic panels in
Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (Miracle of Loaves and Fishes)
*Church of San Vitale (4 Evangelists)
*Dome Mosaic in Battistero Neoniano in Ravenna (baptist of Christ)
Iconographical analysis
![Catedra15](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Catedra15.JPG)
The Throne of Maximianus symbolizes a seat of authority and status. A throne is recognized as a seat for someone with power in the Medieval times. The chair not only signifies the resting of the body, but also the focusing of the mind. In a setting like a
Cathedral
A cathedral is a church that contains the '' cathedra'' () of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, conference, or episcopate. Churches with the function of "cathedral" are usually specific to those Christian denomination ...
, the chair is given a role of reflecting the religious and spiritual attitudes of the attendants of the church.
A cathedra is the official seat of a bishop.
On the Throne of Maximianus, there are scenes of the Old and New Testament depicting the Story of Joseph and the Life of Christ. The scenes of the New Testament hold a peculiar resemblance to Egyptian examples of the New Testaments and they are continued in the seventh century on Coptic monuments.
Front of the seat
At the front of the seat, there are a total of five panels. Four of the panels portray the Evangelists holding their Gospel books. The last panel illustrates John the Baptist, holding his emblem of the lamb.
This is a very common theme that is depicted in many manuscripts and mosaics.
The designs of the throne's front include the vine-stem design, which was heavily used in Early Christian art.
The artists that created the throne incorporated animals and birds within the vines.
On the lower border of the front of the seat contains two lion guards guarding the vase from which the vines emerge. On the top border, there are a pair of peacocks surrounding the monogram of Archbishop Maximianus. The peacocks symbolize birds of immortality.
Side of the seat
![Catedra14](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Catedra14.JPG)
On the side of the throne, there are 10 panels representing the events from the Story of Joseph in the
Book of Genesis
The Book of Genesis (from Greek ; Hebrew: בְּרֵאשִׁית ''Bəreʾšīt'', "In hebeginning") is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its Hebrew name is the same as its first word, ( "In the beginning") ...
.
The artistic style of these scenes is a Sixth-century style, which can be distinguished by the sketchiness of the carving.
Scenes of the Life of Joseph, the choice of costumes, decoration and technique are consistently analogous to the Christian art of Egypt.
Back of the seat
The back of the throne consisted of 24 panels depicting the New Testament and more specifically, the Life of Christ and apocryphal scenes from the
Life of the Virgin
The Life of the Virgin, showing narrative scenes from the life of Mary, the mother of Jesus, is a common subject for pictorial cycles in Christian art, often complementing, or forming part of, a cycle on the Life of Christ. In both cases the nu ...
.
Individual scenes
*The Alexandrian-Coptic version of the
nativity of Christ
The nativity of Jesus, nativity of Christ, birth of Jesus or birth of Christ is described in the biblical gospels of Luke and Matthew. The two accounts agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judaea, his mother Mary was engaged to a man na ...
, depicted on the Throne of Maximian, shows the Virgin lying on a mattress, which is more of an Oriental theme. While the Western Nativities have the Virgin seated in a chair.
*The scene of Annunciation depicts the Virgin sitting to the left on a wicker chair spinning the purple garment for the temple. Other than the examples stated from above, this type of scene occurs only on monuments of the Coptic origin.
*The scene of the Story of Bethlehem, Joseph helping the pregnant Virgin onto the animal, which is led by an angel, is very rare of a scene in Early Christian art. This type of scene is most likely made in Alexandria whence it became a characteristic type in
Coptic art
Coptic art is the Christian art of the Byzantine-Greco-Roman Egypt and of Coptic Christian Churches. Coptic art is best known for its wall-paintings, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and metalwork, much of which survives in monasteries an ...
.
Footnotes
References
*Baldwin, Smith E. . "The Alexandrian Origin of the Chair of Maximianus."American Journal of Archaeology 21, no. 1 (1917): 22-37.
*Farber, Allen. "San Vitale." Home Page. http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth212/san_vitale.html (accessed March 15, 2012).
*Hassett, Maurice. "Cathedra." The Catholic Encyclopedia 3 (1908). http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03437a.htm (accessed March 15, 2012).
*Hayes, Holly. "Photo: Miracle of Loaves and Fishes, Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna." Sacred Sites at Sacred Destinations - Explore sacred sites, religious sites, sacred places. http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/ravenna-sant-apollinare-nuovo-photos/slides/xti_6832p.htm (accessed March 15, 2012).
*Hayes, Holly. "Photo: Dome Mosaic: Baptism of Christ, Neonian Baptistery, Ravenna." Sacred Sites at Sacred Destinations - Explore sacred sites, religious sites, sacred places. http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/ravenna-battistero-neoniano-photos/slides/xti_7123p.htm (accessed March 15, 2012).
*Janson, H. W., and Anthony F. Janson.History of art: the Western tradition. Rev. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice-Hall, 2004.
*Janson, H. W., and Penelope J. E. Davies. Janson's history of art the western tradition. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.
*
Kitzinger, Ernst, ''Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd-7th century'', 1977, Faber & Faber, (US: Cambridge UP, 1977)
*Lowden, John. Early Christian & Byzantine art. London: Phaidon, 19971998.
*Mango, Marlia Mundell. Byzantine trade, 4th-12th centuries: the archaeology of local, regional and international exchange : papers of the thirty-eighth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, St John's College, University of Oxford, March 2004. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate Pub., 2009.
*Milburn, Robert. Early Christian art and architecture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
*Scholastic.com, zantine (330-1453) , Scholastic ART , . "Byzantine (330-1453) , Scholastic ART , Scholastic.com." Scholastic , Children's Books and Book Club , Scholastic.com. http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753901 (accessed March 15, 2012).
*
Schapiro, Meyer, "The Joseph Scenes on the Maximianus Throne", in ''Selected Papers, volume 3, Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art'', 1980, Chatto & Windus, London, , also on JSTOR from the ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', 1952
*Thomas, Paul. "Poetics of Thresholds Paper." Visiblespace. http://www.visiblespace.com/poetics/paper/papertwo.html (accessed March 15, 2012).
{{commons category, Maximian chair
6th-century sculptures
Individual thrones
Byzantine ivory
Early Christian art
Ravenna