The Throne Hall of Dongola, also known as the Mosque Building, is an archaeological site in
Old Dongola
Old Dongola (Old Nubian: ⲧⲩⲛⲅⲩⲗ, ''Tungul''; ar, دنقلا العجوز, ''Dunqulā al-ʿAjūz'') is a deserted town in what is now Northern State, Sudan, located on the east bank of the Nile opposite the Wadi Howar. An important c ...
,
Sudan. It is a two-storey
brick building situated on a rocky hill, overlooking the town and the
Nile
The Nile, , Bohairic , lg, Kiira , Nobiin: Áman Dawū is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the longest ...
valley. It was originally built in the 9th century, serving as the richly adorned representative building of the
Makurian kings. In 1317, during the period of Makurian decline, it was converted into a
mosque
A mosque (; from ar, مَسْجِد, masjid, ; literally "place of ritual prostration"), also called masjid, is a place of prayer for Muslims. Mosques are usually covered buildings, but can be any place where prayers ( sujud) are performed, ...
, serving this purpose until it was closed and turned into a historic monument in 1969. Shortly afterwards
Polish
Polish may refer to:
* Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe
* Polish language
* Poles
Poles,, ; singular masculine: ''Polak'', singular feminine: ''Polka'' or Polish people, are a West Slavic nation and ethnic group, w ...
archaeologists from the
Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology of the University of Warsaw began to excavate the building. It has been described as possibly "the most important, symbolic edifice in the
medieval history of Sudan". It is presently the oldest preserved mosque in Sudan.
History
Makurian Throne Hall (9th century–1317)
From the late 5th century
Old Dongola
Old Dongola (Old Nubian: ⲧⲩⲛⲅⲩⲗ, ''Tungul''; ar, دنقلا العجوز, ''Dunqulā al-ʿAjūz'') is a deserted town in what is now Northern State, Sudan, located on the east bank of the Nile opposite the Wadi Howar. An important c ...
(
Old Nubian
Old Nubian (also called Middle Nubian or Old Nobiin) is an extinct Nubian language, attested in writing from the 8th to the 15th century AD. It is ancestral to modern-day Nobiin and closely related to Dongolawi and Kenzi. It was used throughou ...
: ''Tungul'') was to be the capital of the
Nubian
Nubian may refer to:
*Something of, from, or related to Nubia, a region along the Nile river in Southern Egypt and northern Sudan.
*Nubian people
*Nubian languages
*Anglo-Nubian goat, a breed of goat
* Nubian ibex
* , several ships of the Britis ...
kingdom of
Makuria, which converted to
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
in the mid-6th century and successfully asserted its independence from the
early Muslim conquests
The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( ar, الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, ), also referred to as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet. He estab ...
in the 7th century. Between the 9th and 11th centuries the town enjoyed a
golden age
The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology, particularly the '' Works and Days'' of Hesiod, and is part of the description of temporal decline of the state of peoples through five Ages, Gold being the first and the one during which the G ...
. In the 9th century, several representative buildings were constructed, among them the Throne Hall. It was probably built in the first half of the century, during the reign of King
Georgios I () and his father
Zacharias III (). It was located on a rocky outcrop in the eastern part of the city. From this prominence the two-storey building enjoyed an extensive view of the town and the
Nile
The Nile, , Bohairic , lg, Kiira , Nobiin: Áman Dawū is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the longest ...
. Its purpose has been interpreted differently over the years, ranging from church, monastery and royal castle. However, its internal design suggests that the building had an official, non-residential purpose, and that it was intended to impress visitors. The actual throne hall was on the upper floor, which official delegations and processions reached by ascending a monumental staircase. Both the throne hall and the staircase were adorned with wall paintings. During the 11th–12th centuries they were altered.
From 1265 Makuria endured repeated invasions by the
Mamluk sultanate
The Mamluk Sultanate ( ar, سلطنة المماليك, translit=Salṭanat al-Mamālīk), also known as Mamluk Egypt or the Mamluk Empire, was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) from the mid-13th to early 16t ...
, which, from 1276, usually installed a puppet king on the Makurian throne. At the end of the 13th century, after yet another confrontation with the Mamluks, the most prestigious buildings of Old Dongola, among them the Throne Hall, lay in ruins and the population had dropped drastically due to deportations. The Throne Hall in particular had both its south and northwest devastated. Shortly after the damage was inflicted, at the turn of the 13th century, the building was repaired, although not in its entirety and with various modifications.
Mosque (1317–1969)
In 1316, the Mamluks intervened into Makurian affairs once more, intending to install prince
Barshambu on the throne. In contrast to the kings before him, he was a Muslim. On May 29, 1317 he converted the Throne Hall into a
mosque
A mosque (; from ar, مَسْجِد, masjid, ; literally "place of ritual prostration"), also called masjid, is a place of prayer for Muslims. Mosques are usually covered buildings, but can be any place where prayers ( sujud) are performed, ...
, as is confirmed by a marble inscription. Alterations to the building, especially in the central hall on the upper floor, were made according to its new function, such as the inclusion of a
mihrab and the application of plaster over the Christian wall paintings. Barshambu was not popular among his subjects due to his attitude and his reforms; Nubiologist
Włodzimierz Godlewski Włodzimierz may refer to the following :
People
* Włodzimierz (given name), a Polish variant of the (East) Slavic name Vladimir
Places and jurisdictions
* Włodzimierz, Greater Poland Voivodeship (west-central Poland)
* Włodzimierz, Łask C ...
postulates that the conversion of the Throne Hall might have played a part in his fall. Barshambu was eventually murdered by his own followers in the same year. After his death Makuria was ruled by both Muslim and Christian kings. None of them dared to restore the former function of the building, as the Mamluk sultans supported its new function.
A civil war caused the destruction of Old Dongola in 1365. The Makurian kings fled to
Lower Nubia
Lower Nubia is the northernmost part of Nubia, roughly contiguous with the modern Lake Nasser, which submerged the historical region in the 1960s with the construction of the Aswan High Dam. Many ancient Lower Nubian monuments, and all its modern p ...
in the north, where they would maintain themselves for approximately 150 years. Old Dongola, abandoned by Makuria, came under the control of the Arabic
Banu Ja'd
Banu or BANU may refer to:
* Banu (name)
* Banu (Arabic), Arabic word for "the sons of" or "children of"
* Banu (makeup artist), an Indian makeup artist
* Banu Chichek, a character in the ''Book of Dede Korkut''
* Bulgarian Agrarian National Union ...
tribe and eventually a new political entity, the so-called "
Kingdom of Dongola Town
Kingdom commonly refers to:
* A monarchy ruled by a king or queen
* Kingdom (biology), a category in biological taxonomy
Kingdom may also refer to:
Arts and media Television
* ''Kingdom'' (British TV series), a 2007 British television drama s ...
", which was incorporated into the
Funj sultanate
The Funj Sultanate, also known as Funjistan, Sultanate of Sennar (after its capital Sennar) or Blue Sultanate due to the traditional Sudanese convention of referring to black people as blue () was a monarchy in what is now Sudan, northwestern E ...
during the early-16th century. The building is recorded to have served as a residence for
Mecca pilgrims. However, during the 17th–19th centuries the ground floor was probably inaccessible.
In the second half of the 18th century a local
sheikh Sati Hamid Sawar is recorded to have renovated the mosque extensively.
From the early 19th century the building was repeatedly described by western travellers and researchers. In the late-19th century Old Dongola was abandoned, probably for economic reasons, but the mosque remained in use. In 1906 it was extensively documented for the first time. One year later it received another restoration by Ahmed Helmi, naib of the mamur of Debba; numerous others conducted by the
Sudan Antiquities Service and various museums followed in the mid-20th century.
It ceased operating as a place of worship in 1969, but it has been preserved and is presently the oldest preserved mosque in Sudan.
Historic site (1969–present)
After the salvage excavation of
Faras Cathedral
Faras Cathedral was a cathedral in the Lower Nubian city of Faras. It was the original seat of the Diocese of Faras.
Nobadian rulers controlling the Nile Valley from the first to the third cataracts converted to Christianity around 548 AD infl ...
,
Polish
Polish may refer to:
* Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe
* Polish language
* Poles
Poles,, ; singular masculine: ''Polak'', singular feminine: ''Polka'' or Polish people, are a West Slavic nation and ethnic group, w ...
archaeologists turned their attention to Old Dongola, where they started digging from 1964. Between 1970 and 1983 they excavated the Throne Hall and documented its architecture and wall paintings.
It is intended that the Old Dongola site be transformed into an archaeological park. The construction of a steel roof is planned, providing protection and forming a stabilizing framework. After researching the wall paintings on the staircase and the main room on the first floor, ideas have emerged about the iconography and chronology.
From 2018 to 2023 Old Dongola will be the subject of a large, multidisciplinary project researching the transformations that occurred between the 14th and early-19th centuries.
Architecture
The Throne Hall was inspired by
Byzantine architecture, providing a testament to the Makurian attachment to
Byzantine culture
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
. Very similar audience halls are known from the
Bulgarian Empire, imitating, albeit on a smaller scale, those of
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya ( Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
. The Throne Hall, measuring in height, in length and in width, was built of mud bricks, red (fired) bricks and sandstone.
Wall paintings
The wall paintings in the Throne Hall have suffered damage from rain water, termites and bats. They are located at the staircase and in the central hall and show influences by Byzantine models. The walls of the staircase had two layers of painted plaster, showing
Archangel Michael
Michael (; he, מִיכָאֵל, lit=Who is like El od, translit=Mīḵāʾēl; el, Μιχαήλ, translit=Mikhaḗl; la, Michahel; ar, ميخائيل ، مِيكَالَ ، ميكائيل, translit=Mīkāʾīl, Mīkāl, Mīkhāʾīl), also ...
wielding a spear, two warrior saints (one on foot and one on horseback) as well as several unidentifiable standing figures.
The central hall also had multiple layers of painted plaster, the amount varying from wall to wall. Its east wall housed a large nativity scene featuring the
Virgin Mary
Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother of ...
lying on a mattress, a crib with the
Christ Child, angels and, on the left side of the painting, the three
Biblical Magi. The colour scheme is mostly limited to yellows, oranges, reds and violets. The eastern part of the south wall features a fragmentary depiction of Archangel Michael and the
Holy Trinity, while the western part was divided into two scenes, one showing Mary holding the Christ Child, who reaches out for a palm tree. Again the colours are mostly limited to violet, yellow and red. The iconography of this last scene is unique in a Makurian context. The other scene from the western part of the south wall initially featured the
Transfiguration, but was later painted over with the Holy Trinity and a (barely preserved) king wearing a horned crown. On the west wall a king with a
scepter and a
Byzantine crown, as well as two standing figures with halos, can be seen. The north wall features a large cross, a priest and a king, who wears a crown, a blue veil and a white robe. A later layer of painted plaster added the twenty-four elders from the
Book of Revelation
The Book of Revelation is the final book of the New Testament (and consequently the final book of the Christian Bible). Its title is derived from the first word of the Koine Greek text: , meaning "unveiling" or "revelation". The Book of ...
, depicted wearing white robes and wielding palm leaves, while sitting on thrones.
See also
*
Alodia
Alodia, also known as Alwa ( grc-gre, Aρουα, ''Aroua''; ar, علوة, ''ʿAlwa''), was a medieval kingdom in what is now central and southern Sudan. Its capital was the city of Soba, located near modern-day Khartoum at the confluence of t ...
*
Nobatia
Nobatia or Nobadia (; Greek: Νοβαδία, ''Nobadia''; Old Nubian: ⲙⲓⲅⲛ̅ ''Migin'' or ⲙⲓⲅⲓⲧⲛ︦ ⲅⲟⲩⲗ, ''Migitin Goul'' lit. "''of Nobadia's land''") was a late antique kingdom in Lower Nubia. Together with the tw ...
*
Islam in Sudan
Islam is the most common religion in Sudan and Muslims have dominated national government institutions since independence in 1956. According to UNDP Sudan, the Muslim population is 97%, including numerous Arab and non-Arab groups. The rema ...
References
Annotations
Notes
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* {{cite book , last=Zielinska , first=Dobrochna , editor1=Włodzimierz Godlewski , editor2=Dorota Dzierzbicka , chapter=Painted decoration of the Central Hall: preliminary inventory , title=Dongola 2012-2014. Fieldwork, conservation and site management , year=2015 , pages=25–36 , isbn=978-83-903796-8-5 , publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw , chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/32459247
History of Nubia
History of Sudan
Nubian architecture in Sudan
Mosques
Islam in Africa