Third culture kids (TCK) or third culture individuals (TCI) are people who were raised in a
culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.Tyl ...
other than their parents' or the culture of their country of nationality, and also live in a different environment during a significant part of their
child development
Child development involves the Human development (biology), biological, developmental psychology, psychological and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the conclusion of adolescence. Childhood is divided into 3 stages o ...
years.
They typically are exposed to a greater volume and variety of cultural influences than those who grow up in one particular cultural setting. The term applies to both adults and children, as the term ''kid'' refers to the individual's formative or developmental years. However, for clarification, sometimes the term ''adult third culture kid'' (ATCK) is used.
TCKs move between cultures before they have had the opportunity to fully develop their personal and cultural
identity
Identity may refer to:
* Identity document
* Identity (philosophy)
* Identity (social science)
* Identity (mathematics)
Arts and entertainment Film and television
* ''Identity'' (1987 film), an Iranian film
* ''Identity'' (2003 film), ...
.
The first culture of such individuals refers to the culture of the country from which the parents originated, the second culture refers to the culture in which the family currently resides, and the third culture refers to the distinct cultural ties among all third culture individuals that share no connection to the first two cultures.
In the early 21st century, the number of
bilingual
Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all E ...
children in the world was about the same as the number of
monolingual
Monoglottism (Greek μόνος ''monos'', "alone, solitary", + γλῶττα , "tongue, language") or, more commonly, monolingualism or unilingualism, is the condition of being able to speak only a single language, as opposed to multilingualism. ...
children. TCKs are often exposed to a second (or third, fourth, etc.) language while living in their host culture, being physically exposed to the environment where the native language is used in practical aspects of life. "TCKs learn some languages in schools abroad and some in their homes or in the marketplaces of a foreign land. ... Some pick up languages from the nannies in the home or from playmates in the neighborhood". This
language immersion
Language immersion, or simply immersion, is a technique used in bilingual language education in which two languages are used for instruction in a variety of topics, including math, science, or social studies. The languages used for instruction ...
is why TCKs are often bilingual, and sometimes even multilingual.
Origins
![National Multicultural Festival (6856303265)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/National_Multicultural_Festival_%286856303265%29.jpg)
The term ''third culture kid'' was first coined by researchers John and
Ruth Useem in the 1950s, who used it to describe the children of American citizens working and living abroad.
Ruth Useem first used the term after her second year-long visit to
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
with her fellow
sociologist/
anthropologist
An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms and ...
husband and three children.
Useem et al. (1963) depicted individuals who have undergone such an experience as having distinct standards of interpersonal behavior, work-related
norms, codes of lifestyle and
perspectives, and communication. This creates a new cultural group that does not fall into their home or host culture, but rather share a culture with all other TCKs. In 1993 she wrote:
Kay Branaman Eakin, the former Education Counselor for the
United States Department of State
The United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other n ...
, worked with American families returning to the United States after having lived abroad. She described a TCK as "someone who, as a child, has spent a significant period of time in one or more culture(s) other than his or her own, thus integrating elements of those cultures and their own birth culture, into a third culture." In 1984, author and researcher Norma McCaig used the term ''
global nomad
A global nomad is a person who is living a mobile and international lifestyle. Global nomads aim to live location-independently, seeking detachment from particular geographical locations and the idea of territorial belonging.
Origins and use of ...
'', which is synonymous with ''TCK'', but was used in order to take into account that the child's situation was as a result of a parent or parents'
career
The career is an individual's metaphorical "journey" through learning, work and other aspects of life. There are a number of ways to define career and the term is used in a variety of ways.
Definitions
The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' defin ...
or life choice(s).
General characteristics
Third culture individuals are particularly adept at building relationships with other cultures while not possessing a
cultural identity
Cultural identity is a part of a person's identity, or their self-conception and self-perception, and is related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, generation, locality or any kind of social group that has its own distinct cultur ...
of their own.
They can also be referred to as cultural hybrids, cultural chameleons, and global nomads.
It has been discussed in the past that the characteristics that have been put forth by prominent researchers in the TCK field have only been discussed when referring to American children who have lived abroad. However, there has been further research done on TCKs that shows that the same characteristics described by Pollock and Useem in the most prominent TCK literature also apply to individuals from other nations who have also lived abroad for extended periods of time during their developmental years.
There are benefits and challenges to being a TCK according to various researchers on the subject. The term ''TCKs'' may be applied to all social classes and includes immigrant and refugee students (Dewaele 8c van Oudenhoven, 2009).
Benefits
* Expanded
worldview
A worldview or world-view or ''Weltanschauung'' is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the whole of the individual's or society's knowledge, culture, and point of view. A worldview can include natural p ...
: TCKs have an understanding that there is more than one way to look at situations that they are exposed to or experience. This can also be a challenge however, when TCKs return to a culture that is
homogenous
Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts often used in the sciences and statistics relating to the uniformity of a substance or organism. A material or image that is homogeneous is uniform in composition or character (i.e. color, shape, siz ...
in their belief system, as an expanded worldview is perceived as offensive or useless.
* Third-dimensional view of the world: With an increased number of hands-on
experience
Experience refers to conscious events in general, more specifically to perceptions, or to the practical knowledge and familiarity that is produced by these conscious processes. Understood as a conscious event in the widest sense, experience involv ...
s in multiple cultures, there is a difference in the way that the world is perceived. For example, there has been an increase in
cross-cultural Cross-cultural may refer to
*cross-cultural studies, a comparative tendency in various fields of cultural analysis
*cross-cultural communication, a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate
*any of vari ...
authors, such as
Khaled Hosseini
Khaled Hosseini (;Pashto/Dari ; born March 4, 1965) is an Afghan Americans, Afghan-American novelist, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR goodwill ambassador, and former physician. His debut novel ''The Kite Runner'' (2003) wa ...
, author of ''
The Kite Runner
''The Kite Runner'' is the first novel by Afghan-American author Khaled Hosseini. Published in 2003 by Riverhead Books, it tells the story of Amir, a young boy from the Wazir Akbar Khan, Kabul, Wazir Akbar Khan district of Kabul. The story is se ...
'', who have received awards for their works that are written from a
multicultural
The term multiculturalism has a range of meanings within the contexts of sociology, political philosophy, and colloquial use. In sociology and in everyday usage, it is a synonym for "Pluralism (political theory), ethnic pluralism", with the tw ...
perspective. These authors are able to provide vivid descriptions about the cultures they have directly experienced and thus their work appears to be "three-dimensional."
* Interpersonal sensitivity: Increased exposure to a variety of perceptions and lifestyles allow TCKs to monitor their emotions, and register societal norms and cues more adeptly so as to produce higher
sensitivity to other cultures and ways of life.
* Cross-cultural competence or
cultural intelligence
Cultural intelligence or cultural quotient (CQ) is the ability to relate and work effectively across cultures, bearing similarity to the term cultural agility. The term has been used in business, education, government, and academic research conte ...
: the capacity to function effectively across national, ethnic, and organizational cultures.
* TCK have been found to have higher levels of general adjustment as opposed to mono cultural children. Cultural adaptability is also a benefit, although may also come as a challenge which results from lack of cultural balance.
* The major benefit is related to language exposure, according to Tracy Tokuhama-Espinosa.
Challenges
* Confused
loyalties: Third culture kids can experience a lot of confusion with politics and values. This is especially the case when moving from
collectivist to
individualist
Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual. Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and to value independence and self-relianc ...
cultures, or vice versa, as the values within each culture are different from the other.
This issue is also related with the
identity crisis
In psychology, identity crisis is a stage theory of identity development where it involves resolution of a conflict over the 8 stages of the lifespan.(Schultz, 216) The term was coined by German psychologist Erik Erikson.
The stage of psychosoci ...
, on a cultural level, not being able to feel a sense of oneness with any one nationality or culture. Oftentimes, TCKs cannot answer the question: "Where is home?"
* Painful awareness of reality: difficulty adjusting to cultures where the only culture that is discussed or focused on is itself.
* Ignorance of home culture: TCKs are often lacking in knowledge about their home nation, culture, town, and/or family. With current technology leading to the globalization of information, this is becoming increasingly less of a challenge provided the TCKs use modern technology in their host cultures to connect to their home culture. Understanding a culture's sense of humor, however, is a commonly cited difficulty with the transition back to a home culture. There are also general societal norms and practices that will not be known when a TCK is first re-introduced to his/her home culture but those are eventually learned.
* Difficulties with adjusting to adult life: the mixture of influences from the various cultures that the individual has lived can create challenges in developing an identity as well as with a sense of belonging. Feelings of rootlessness and restlessness can make the transition to
adulthood
An adult is a human or other animal that has reached full growth. In human context, the term ''adult'' has meanings associated with social and legal concepts. In contrast to a " minor", a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of major ...
a challenging period for TCKs.
* "American ATCKs reported significantly higher levels of prejudice than non-American ATCKs on the Cognitive subscale of the QDI and the Social Dominance Orientation scale (SDO)."
* There is a need for special attention of young TCK in educational settings to make sure they are supported when and if entering a new school. This would allow for an optimal learning experience for the child.
* "Walters and Auton-Cuff (2009) found that female TCKs hesitate to develop relationships and have less emotional affect as compared to non-TCKs. Furthermore, female TCKs' identity development was delayed because of their focus on adjusting rather than creating a sense of belonging (Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009)."
Psychological effect
Identity
One of the challenges of being a third culture individual is developing a sense of
belonging, commitment, and
attachment to a culture. These factors play a strong role in one's
self-esteem
Self-esteem is confidence in one's own worth or abilities. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs about oneself (for example, "I am loved", "I am worthy") as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame. Smith and Mackie (2007) d ...
and
identity
Identity may refer to:
* Identity document
* Identity (philosophy)
* Identity (social science)
* Identity (mathematics)
Arts and entertainment Film and television
* ''Identity'' (1987 film), an Iranian film
* ''Identity'' (2003 film), ...
, and are especially apparent as present or not present among TCKs.
There are psychological benefits to being a bi-culturally competent individual, meaning that adjustment to the host culture and
repatriation
Repatriation is the process of returning a thing or a person to its country of origin or citizenship. The term may refer to non-human entities, such as converting a foreign currency into the currency of one's own country, as well as to the pro ...
do not pose a difficulty for the individual. Individuals who do not experience this same smooth transition into the new culture are referred to as "culturally rootless" and "cultural homelessness". Culturally homeless (CH) individuals often experience confusion over their identity and especially because the TCK is frequently abroad during the adolescent development years when identity is most solidified psychologically.
When individuals who have spent a significant number of their developmental years in a host culture and have not been able to adapt, develop an identity, and do not feel as though they belong, they are considered "culturally homeless". Cultural homelessness has been found to have both advantages and disadvantages, at times to being associated with low self-esteem, perceiving less control over one's own life, and an unsatisfactory level of experience with belonging and attachment.
Research
Though research initially largely focused on children in missionary families or children of
diplomat
A diplomat (from grc, δίπλωμα; romanized ''diploma'') is a person appointed by a state or an intergovernmental institution such as the United Nations or the European Union to conduct diplomacy with one or more other states or internati ...
s, it has since expanded to other populations, including non-U.S. citizens. The researchers who pioneered the TCK research, such as Ruth Useem, were not expecting to find as many participants as they did. Useem and Cottrell, for example, were seeking at least 100 participants to respond to a survey that they believed to be "unconsciously long" but instead had 680 participants (ranging in age from 25 to 84 years) respond to the
questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research
Research is "creativity, creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, ...
. Instances like this one indicate to researchers the potential in exploring a subject matter that is still open to much research.
Increased tolerance
From the research that has been conducted on TCKs, it has been found that subjects are generally more
tolerant of different cultures and of people of different backgrounds than subjects from the same home country who are not TCKs. In addition, TCKs generally feel that they are better able to adapt to new cultures and understand how to behave appropriately in these new environments.
Researcher and teacher Wenda Sheard surveyed some of her multi-cultural students, most of whom were
fluent in two or more languages, and found that many felt that they had an increased tolerance of other cultures. However, as one student explained, part of this tolerance was out of necessity for maintaining a healthy social life in one's new environment and culture.
In a study by Dewaele and van Oudenhoven (2009), it was found that TCKs scored higher on the open-mindedness scale on the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). According to the study, "this dimension
f the testevaluates for open and unprejudiced attitudes toward out-group members, as well as diverse cultural norms and values."
Intellectual effect
Though the intellectual effect of being a TCK has not yet been widely explored, there has been some research in the area. One particular study by Lee and Bain (2007) that was found to have significant findings was conducted on young native
Koreans
Koreans ( South Korean: , , North Korean: , ; see names of Korea) are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Korean Peninsula.
Koreans mainly live in the two Korean nation states: North Korea and South Korea (collectively and simply refe ...
who had recently moved to the United States and were attending school in America. The researchers were looking to see how these students would respond to explicit instruction aimed to work with their
originality
Originality is the aspect of created or invented works that distinguish them from replica, reproductions, clones, forgery, forgeries, or substantially derivative works. The modern idea of originality is according to some scholars tied to Romantici ...
and
fluency and that is specific to TCKs. This was measured through the level of
creativity
Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and valuable is formed. The created item may be intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical composition, or a joke) or a physical object (such as an invention, a printed literary w ...
demonstrated in assigned tasks given to the students. TCKs were found to be able to demonstrate significantly higher levels of creativity and originality for
problem solving
Problem solving is the process of achieving a goal by overcoming obstacles, a frequent part of most activities. Problems in need of solutions range from simple personal tasks (e.g. how to turn on an appliance) to complex issues in business an ...
than TCKs not given this same explicit instruction. This study has implications for the ways that TCKs can be instructed differently from the traditional
curriculum
In education, a curriculum (; : curricula or curriculums) is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process. The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view ...
to enhance their creativity and problem solving abilities because of their third culture experience.
Intellectual effect is also possible through differences in choosing to continue studies in
higher education
Higher education is tertiary education leading to award of an academic degree. Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completi ...
after high school. In 2001, it was found by the
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics that 61.7 percent of 2001 high school graduates were enrolled in college. That same year, it was found that 95 percent of the TCK population were either enrolled or had some college education. Twenty-nine percent of this population had received an advanced degree, which is also higher than the percentage of the general population.
Gender differences
Much of the literature and research surrounding TCKs has found that these individuals are more open to learning new languages, demonstrate more flexibility when interacting with a novel culture than their monoculture peers, and a greater interest in continuing a global nomad lifestyle, which includes an interest in international careers. It has been found that women are more inclined to seek out
interpersonal relationships
The concept of interpersonal relationship involves social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people. Interpersonal relationships vary in their degree of intimacy or self-disclosure, but also in their duration, in t ...
while men are more task-oriented in their relationships and choices. Such findings were used in the hypothesis of a study conducted by Gerner & Perry (2000) that predicted that
gender differences
Sex differences in humans have been studied in a variety of fields. Sex determination occurs by the presence or absence of a Y in the 23rd pair of chromosomes in the human genome. Phenotypic sex refers to an individual's sex as determined by the ...
would also be found in the cultural acceptance and experiences of TCKs.
Both non-U.S. citizen females and U.S. citizen females were found to have more positive ratings of cultural acceptance, acquisition or exposure to a new language, travel, and interest in going into an international career in the future and were less prone to stereotypes.
Education and counseling
With the growing number of international business, military placements, and immigration there has been a growing number of TCKs. Third culture kids are being educated in a culture that is not their own. Schools and teachers need to be aware of the culture differences these students face. Studies have found that educators and counselors should be culturally competent and possess the knowledge to properly educate these type of students. This would create an effective and optimal environment for their learning and adjusting abilities. Research conducted on TCKs have been found to need special attention during their transition phase. The stress and grief students feel during transitional phases can distort their psycho-social development which can affect their grades and school work. Therefore, Third Culture Kid students need a comfortable and inviting school setting to offset the effect of their transition. The best way for counselors to work with TCKs is to have sound knowledge about the students and their unique characteristics.
Emotions
An empirical research was done by Katholiki Georgiades, Michael H. Boyle, and Kelly A. Fife over the Emotional and Behavior Problems Among Adolescent Students, in specific immigrant students. They examined the relationship between immigrants and racial/ethnic congruence in school. They hypothesized that
school belonging
The most commonly used definition of school belonging comes from a 1993 academic article by researchers Carol Goodenow and Kathleen Grady, who describe school Belongingness, belonging as "the extent to which students feel personally accepted, res ...
is the connection between the congruency and the emotional problems. Although their study was unable to find enough evidence to support their hypothesis they agree that school belonging will influence emotional behavioral problems. According to other studies, TCKs are proven to have less emotional stability than those who grew up in more culturally and socially stable environment.
Careers that lead to third culture kids
Military
TCKs who have parents or guardians affiliated with the military have varying levels of exposure to local culture. This is due to the possibility of living on base or off base. TCKs who live off base or who are not closely affiliated with the military (such as contractors) will have higher exposure and cultural shaping, while those who spend the majority of their time on the base will have lower exposure and minimal cultural shaping.
Military children who are immersed in local culture from birth tend to show an extremely high level of cultural shaping, and upon relocation they are likely to experience
culture shock
Culture shock is an experience a person may have when one moves to a cultural environment which is different from one's own; it is also the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration ...
and cling to said culture for years, if not for life. Relocation for these particular TCKs has shown to be particularly marring for them emotionally.
See also
Military brat (U.S. subculture)
In the United States, a military brat (also known by various "brat" derivatives) is the child of a parent(s), adopted parent(s) or legal guardian(s) serving full-time in the United States Armed Forces, whether current or former. The term ''milita ...
.
Non-military government
Some of these TCKs may grow up moving from country to country in the diplomatic corps (see
Foreign Service brat
In the United States, a Foreign Service brat (also referred to as diplobrat or FSB) is a person whose parent(s) served full-time in a Foreign Service posting abroad during that person's childhood. The term '' brat'' is often thought of as derogat ...
) while others may live their lives near military bases.
Religious
Missionary kid
Missionary’s kids (or MKs) are the children of missionary parents, and thus born or raised abroad (that is, on the "mission-field"). They form a subset of third culture kids (TCKs). The term is more specifically applied when these children retur ...
s (MKs) typically spend the most time overseas, of any TCKs, in one country. 85% of MKs spend more than 10 years in foreign countries and 72% lived in only one foreign country. Of all TCKs, MKs generally have the most interaction with the local populace and the least interaction with people from their passport country. They are also the most likely of the TCKs to integrate themselves into the local culture.
[Cotrell (2002) p 231] 83% of missionary kids have at least one parent with an advanced degree.
Missionary kids struggle adjusting to the parents’ culture; the majority of MKs identify mostly with the country in which their parents served.
Business
Another career that can lead to TCKs is a career in business. Sixty-three percent of business TCKs have lived in foreign countries at least 10 years but are more likely than children in missionary families to live in multiple countries. Business TCKs have fairly high interaction with both their host nationals and people from their host country.
Other
Not all TCK families have one of the four careers listed above. Other careers include working for an intergovernmental agency (for example, the
Nuclear Energy Agency
The Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) is an intergovernmental agency that is organized under the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Originally formed on 1 February 1958 with the name European Nuclear Energy Agency (ENEA)— ...
, the
Commonwealth Secretariat
The Commonwealth Secretariat is the main intergovernmental agency and central institution of the Commonwealth of Nations. It is responsible for facilitating co-operation between members; organising meetings, including the Commonwealth Heads o ...
, and the
International Agency of the Francophonie), an international public or non-governmental organization (for example, an international school or serving as international staff of the United Nations or one of their agencies), and a local organization such as a
hospital
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized health science and auxiliary healthcare staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically has an emerge ...
. Working in media or athletic industries (for example,
Wally Szczerbiak
Walter Robert Szczerbiak Jr. ( ; born March 5, 1977) is an American former professional basketball player and current color analyst for the New York Knicks on MSG Network. He played 10 seasons for four teams in the National Basketball Associat ...
) can also mean being moved abroad. Like most of the other careers that send employees abroad, involvement with the host culture can vary greatly.
Recent research into the 'other' category has identified a subgroup of TCKs now labelled EdKids. These are children who relocate to various countries with their parents who are educators in international schools. This creates a unique paradigm of a nuclear family whose family-work-school-social experiences are intertwined.
Career decisions
Effect on the workforce
Third culture individuals, with their international experience, generally value the international aspect of their lives. In a
survey
Survey may refer to:
Statistics and human research
* Statistical survey, a method for collecting quantitative information about items in a population
* Survey (human research), including opinion polls
Spatial measurement
* Surveying, the techniq ...
given to TCKs in 2001, there was a strong interest among TCK participants to continue to travel as they move into adulthood and their future careers, and many continued to maintain their internationally acquired languages. It was also found in these surveys that approximately half of the participants continue to travel at least once a year and that just a little under 15 percent travel for business.
TCKs have also been found to report selecting to study majors while in college that could have the options of having international careers. Some of these fields of study include business,
nursing
Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health ...
, and
teaching English as a foreign language
Teaching English as a second language (TESL) or Teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) are terms that refer to teaching English to students whose first language is not English. The terms TESL, TEFL, and TESOL distinguish betwee ...
.
Below are tables showing some of the fields that TCK go into.
Language and third culture individuals
![Languages world map actual](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Languages_world_map_actual.png)
Most international TCKs are expected to speak English and some countries require their expatriate families to be proficient with the English language.
This is largely because most international schools use the English language as the norm.
Families tend to seek out schools whose principal languages they share, and ideally one which mirrors their own educational system. Many countries have American schools, French schools, British schools, German Schools and 'International Schools' which often follow one of the three
International Baccalaureate
The International Baccalaureate (IB), formerly known as the International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO), is a nonprofit foundation headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and founded in 1968. It offers four educational programmes: the IB Dip ...
programs. These will be populated by
expatriate
An expatriate (often shortened to expat) is a person who resides outside their native country. In common usage, the term often refers to educated professionals, skilled workers, or artists taking positions outside their home country, either ...
s' children and some children of the local upper middle class. They do this in an effort to maintain linguistic stability and to ensure that their children do not fall behind due to linguistic problems. Where their own language is not available, families will often choose English-speaking schools for their children. They do this because of the linguistic and cultural opportunities being immersed in English might provide their children when they are adults, and because their children are more likely to have prior exposure to English than to other international languages. This poses the potential for non-English speaking TCKs to have a significantly different experience from TCKs for whom English is a native language.
Research on TCKs from Japan, Denmark, Italy, Germany, the United States and Africa has shown that TCKs from different countries share more in common with other TCKs than they do with their own peer group from their passport country.
A few sociologists studying TCKs, however, argue that the commonality found in international TCKs is not the result of true commonality, but rather the researcher's bias projecting expectations upon the studied subculture. They believe that some of the superficial attributes may mirror each other, but that TCKs from different countries are really different from one another.
The exteriors may be the same, but that the understanding of the world around them differs.
Kikokushijo
In Japan, the use of the term ''third culture kids'' to refer to children returned from living overseas is not universally accepted; they are typically referred to both in Japanese and in English as ''
kikokushijo
and are Japanese-language terms referring to the children of Japanese expatriates who take part of their education outside Japan. The former term is used to refer to children who have returned to Japan, while the latter refers to such children w ...
'', literally "returnee children", a term which has different implications. Public awareness of ''kikokushijo'' is much more widespread in Japan than awareness of TCKs in the United States, and government reports as early as 1966 recognised the need for the school system to adapt to them. However, views of ''kikokushijo'' have not always been positive; in the 1970s, especially, they were characterised in media reports and even by their own parents as "educational orphans" in need of "rescue" to reduce their foreignness and successfully reintegrate them into Japanese society.
Statistics (U.S. TCKs)
Research has been done on American TCKs to identify various characteristics:
[McCaig NM (1994)]
Growing up with a world view – nomad children develop multicultural skills
''Foreign Service Journal, pp. 32–41''.[Useem RH (2001)]
. ''International Schools Services''.
Cognitive and emotional development
* Teenage TCKs are more mature than non-TCKs, but in their twenties take longer than their peers to focus their aims.
* Depression is comparatively prevalent among TCKs.
* TCKs' sense of identity and well-being is directly and negatively affected by repatriation.
[Plamondon, Laila (2008). Third Culture Kids: Factors that Predict Psychological Health after Repatriation. Honors Thesis, Smith College.] The severity of the effect from repatriation may also depend on the degree of cultural and linguistic differences between the TCK's place of recent residence and place of repatriation
* TCKs are highly linguistically adept (not as true for military TCKs).
** A study whose subjects were all "career military brats"—those who had a parent in the military from birth through high school—shows that brats are linguistically adept.
[Ender, Morten, "Growing up in the Military" in Strangers at Home: Essays on the effects of living overseas and Coming 'home' to a strange land. Edited Carolyn Smith, Alethia Publications: New York. 1996. pp 88–90]
* Like all children, TCKs may experience
stress
Stress may refer to:
Science and medicine
* Stress (biology), an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition
* Stress (linguistics), relative emphasis or prominence given to a syllable in a word, or to a word in a phrase ...
and even
grief
Grief is the response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or some living thing that has died, to which a bond or affection was formed. Although conventionally focused on the emotional response to loss, grief also has physical, cogni ...
from the
relocation experience.
Education and career
* In the US, TCKs are 4 times as likely as non-TCKs to earn a bachelor's degree (81% vs 21%)
* 44 percent earned undergraduate degree after the age of 22.
* Education, medicine, business management, self-employment, and highly skilled positions are the most common professions for TCKs.
See also
*
Cultural jet lag
*
Culture shock
Culture shock is an experience a person may have when one moves to a cultural environment which is different from one's own; it is also the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration ...
*
Existential migration
Existential migration is a term coined by Greg Madison (2006) in ''Existential Analysis'', the journal of the Society for Existential Analysis. Madison's term describes expatriates (voluntary emigrants) who supposedly have an "existential" motivat ...
*
Global mobility
Global workforce refers to the international labor pool of workers, including those employed by multinational companies and connected through a global system of networking and production, foreign workers, transient migrant workers, remote workers ...
*
Identity crisis (psychology)
In psychology, identity crisis is a stage theory of identity development where it involves resolution of a conflict over the 8 stages of the lifespan.(Schultz, 216) The term was coined by German psychologist Erik Erikson.
The stage of psychosoci ...
*
Military brat
A military brat ( colloquial or military slang) is a child of serving or retired military personnel. Military brats are associated with a unique subcultureDavid C. Pollock, Ruth E. van Reken. ''Third Culture Kids: Growing Up Among Worlds'', Rev ...
*
Missionary kid
Missionary’s kids (or MKs) are the children of missionary parents, and thus born or raised abroad (that is, on the "mission-field"). They form a subset of third culture kids (TCKs). The term is more specifically applied when these children retur ...
*
Relocation (personal)
Relocation, also known as moving, or moving house, is the process of leaving one's dwelling and settling in another. The new location can be in the same neighborhood or a much farther place in a different city or different country (immigration). ...
*
Social alienation
Social alienation is a person's feeling of disconnection from a group whether friends, family, or wider society to which the individual has an affinity. Such alienation has been described as "a condition in social relationships reflected by (1) ...
References
Citations
Works cited and further reading
* Bell, Linda (1997). ''Hidden Immigrants: Legacies of Growing Up Abroad''. Cross Cultural Publications/Crossroads. Notre Dame, IN.
* Bell-Villada, Gene H., et al., eds. Writing out of Limbo: International Childhoods, Global Nomads and Third Culture Kids. Newcastle upon Tyne: UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2011. Print.
*
* Blair, Admiral Dennis, Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Command.
"The Military Culture as an Exemplar of American Qualities"Prepared for Supporting the Military Child Annual Conference, Westin Horton Plaza Hotel, San Diego, California, (July 19, 2000). Retrieved December 3, 2006.
* Britten, Samuel (November 30, 1998
Third Culture Kid World. Retrieved December 3, 2006
* Cottrell, Ann Baker (2011). '' Explaining Differences: TCKs and Other CCKs, American and Japanese TCKs'' in ''Writing Out of Limbo:International Childhoods, Global Nomads and Third Culture Kids.'' Gene Bell-Villada and Nina Sichel, Editors. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. .
* Cottrell, Ann and Ruth Hill Useem (1993)
''International Schools Services, 8(1)'' Accessed January 5, 2007.
*
* Eakin, Kay (1996). "You can't go 'Home' Again" in ''Strangers at Home: Essays on the effects of living overseas and Coming 'home' to a strange land.'' Edited Carolyn Smith, Alethia Publications: New York. 1996
* Ender, Morten, "Growing up in the Military" in Strangers at Home: Essays on the effects of living overseas and Coming 'home' to a strange land. Edited Carolyn Smith, Alethia Publications: New York. 1996
* Gardner, Marilyn R. (July 1, 2014) Between Worlds: Essays on Culture and Belonging, Doorlight Publications http://amzn.com/0983865388
* Graham, Cork (2004
"The Bamboo Chest: An Adventure in Healing the Trauma of War"DPP 2004
* Hess DJ (1994). ''The Whole World Guide to Culture Learning''. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
* Hervey, Emily (2009)
"Cultural Transitions During Childhood and Adjustment to College"* Jordan, Kathleen Finn (2002). "Identity Formation and the Adult Third Culture Kid " In Morten Ender, ed., "Military Brats and Other Global Nomads".
* Kalb R and Welch P (1992). ''Moving Your Family Overseas''. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
* Kelley, Michelle (2002). "The Effects of Deployment on Traditional and Nontraditional Military Families: Navy Mothers and Their Children" in Morten Ender, ed., "Military Brats and Other Global Nomads"
* Kidd, Julie and Linda Lankenau (Undated
US Department of State. Retrieved December 3, 2006.
* Kim, Young Yun. "Intercultural Personhood: Globalization and a Way of Being." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 32.4 (2008): 359–68. ScienceDirect. Elsevier B.V., July 2008. Web. 5 Dec. 2014.
* Kohls RL (1996). ''Survival Kit for Overseas Living''. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
* Lawlor, Mary (2013). "Fighter Pilot's Daughter: Growing Up in the Sixties and the Cold War," Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. .
* Maffini, H. (2011). ''Sammy's Next Move''. Third Culture Kids Press, NY.
* Morten G. Ender, ed. (2002). ''Military Brats and Other Global Nomads: Growing Up in Organization Families,'' Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.
* Pascoe R (1993). ''Culture Shock: Successful Living Abroad''. Graphic Arts, Portland, OR.
* Pearce, (2002). ''Children's International Relocation and the Development Process.'' in Morten Ender, ed., "Military Brats and Other Global Nomads"
* Plamondon, Laila. (2008). Third Culture Kids: Factors that Predict Psychological Health after Repatriation. Honors Thesis, Smith College.
* Pollock DC and Van Reken R (2001). ''Third Culture Kids''. Nicholas Brealey Publishing/Intercultural Press. Yarmouth, Maine. .
* Price, Phoebe. (2002). "Behavior of Civilian and Military High School Students in Movie Theaters", in Morten Ender, ed., "Military Brats and Other Global Nomads".
* Reken, Ruth (1996). ''Religious Culture Shock.'' in Carolyn Smith "STrangers at Home: Essays on The effects of Living Overseas and Coming Home/"
* Reken, Ruth and Paulette Bethel
Retrieved December 3, 2006.
* Reken, Ruth E. Van. "Obama's 'Third Culture' Team." The Daily Beast. Newsweek/Daily Beast, 26 Nov. 2008. Web. 5 Dec. 2014.
* Seelye HN, Wasilewski JH (1996). ''Between Cultures: Developing Self-Identity in a World of Diversity''. McGraw-Hill Companies. .
* Shames GW (1997). ''Transcultural Odysseys: The Evolving Global Consciousness''. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
* Simens, Julia (2011). "Emotional Resilience and the Expat Child: practical storytelling techniques that will strengthen the global family". Summertime Publishing Company
* Stalnaker, Stan (2002) "Hub Culture: The Next Wave of Urban Consumers", Wiley.
* Storti C (1997). ''The Art of Coming Home''. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
* Smith, Carolyn (ed) (1996). '' World Citizens and "Rubberband Nationals"'' in Carolyn Smith ''Strangers at Home: Essays on the Effects of Living Overseas and Coming 'Home' to a Strange Land,'' New York: Aletheia Publications.
* Stultz, Wendy. "Global and Domestic Nomads or Third Culture Kids." Journal of Student Affairs XII (2003) : n. pag. Journal of Student Affairs. Colorado State University, 2003. Web. 1 Dec. 2014.
* Tyler, Mary (2002). "The Military Teenager in Europe: Perspectives for Health care Providers", in Morten Ender, ed., "Military Brats and Other Global Nomads".
* Useem, Ruth et al. (undated
International Schools Services. Retrieved December 3, 2006.
* Van Reken, Ruth and Bethel, Paulette M
Retrieved December 3, 2006.
* Wertsch, Mary Edwards (1991). ''Military Brats: Legacies of Childhood Inside the Fortress,'' New York, New York: Harmony Books. {{ISBN, 051758400X
* Williams, Karen and LisaMarie Mariglia, (2002) "Military Brats: Issues and Associations in Adulthood" in Morten Ender, ed., "Military Brats and Other Global Nomads
Identity (social science)
Childhood-related stereotypes
Cultural globalization
Sociological terminology