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''Water Margin'' (''Shuihu zhuan'') is one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular
Mandarin Mandarin or The Mandarin may refer to: Language * Mandarin Chinese, branch of Chinese originally spoken in northern parts of the country ** Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Mandarin, the official language of China ** Taiwanese Mandarin, Stand ...
, and is attributed to
Shi Nai'an Shi Nai'an (, ca. 1296–1372) was a Chinese writer from the Yuan and early Ming periods. ''Shuihu zhuan'' (''Water Margin''), one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, is traditionally attributed to him. There are few re ...
. It is also translated as ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' and ''All Men Are Brothers''. The story, which is set in the
Northern Song Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a r ...
dynasty (around 1120), tells of how a group of 108 outlaws gather at
Mount Liang Mount Liang (, often referred to in Chinese as ) is a mountain in Liangshan County, Shandong, China which rises to 197.9 metres above sea level. It is well known as the stronghold of the 108 Heroes in the classic Chinese novel ''Water Margin ...
(or ''Liangshan'' Marsh) to rebel against the government. Later they are granted amnesty and enlisted by the government to resist the nomadic conquest of the
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
and other rebels. While the book's authorship is traditionally attributed to Shi Nai'an (1296–1372), the first external reference to the novel only appeared in 1524 during the Jiajing reign of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, sparking a long-lasting academic debate on when it was actually written and which historical events the author had witnessed that inspired him to write the book. It is considered one of the
Four Great Classical Novels Classic Chinese Novels () are the best-known novels of pre-modern Chinese literature. These are among the world's longest and oldest novels. They represented a new complexity in structure and sophistication in language that helped to establish t ...
of Chinese literature.Yenna Wu, "Full-Length Vernacular Fiction," in
Victor Mair Victor Henry Mair (; born March 25, 1943) is an American sinologist. He is a professor of Chinese at the University of Pennsylvania. Among other accomplishments, Mair has edited the standard ''Columbia History of Chinese Literature'' and the ''Co ...
, (ed.), ''
The Columbia History of Chinese Literature ''The Columbia History of Chinese Literature'' is a reference book edited by Victor H. Mair and published by the Columbia University Press in 2002. The topics include all genres and periods of poetry, prose, fiction, and drama but also areas not tr ...
'' (NY:
Columbia University Press Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by Jennifer Crewe (2014–present) and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fiel ...
, 2001), pp. 627–629.
It has introduced readers to many of the best-known characters in Chinese literature, such as
Wu Song Wu Song ( zh, c=武松, p=wǔ sōng), also known as Wu the Second ( zh, c=武二郎, p=wŭ èrláng, labels=no), is a legendary hero recounted since the 13th century; and one of the well-known fictional characters in the ''Water Margin'', one of ...
,
Lin Chong Lin Chong is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels Classic Chinese Novels () are the best-known novels of pre-modern Chinese literature. These are among the world's longest and oldest novels. They ...
,
Pan Jinlian Pan Jinlian () is a fictional character in the 17th-century Chinese novel ''Jin Ping Mei'' (''The Plum in the Golden Vase)'', and a minor character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. She is an arch ...
,
Song Jiang A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition ...
and
Lu Zhishen Lu Zhishen is a fictional character in '' Water Margin'', one of the four great classical novels in Chinese literature. He is the main character in the first segment of the novel, which spans about six chapters. Nicknamed "Flowery Monk", he ra ...
. ''Water Margin'' also exerted a towering influence in the development of fiction elsewhere in East Asia, such as in Japanese literature.


Historical context and development

''Water Margin'' is based on the exploits of the outlaw
Song Jiang A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition ...
and his 108 companions (The 36 "Heavenly Spirits" (三十六天罡) and the 72 "Earthly Demons" (七十二地煞)). The group was active in the
Huainan Huainan () is a prefecture-level city with 3,033,528 inhabitants as of the 2020 census in north-central Anhui province, China. It is named for the Han-era Principality of Huainan. It borders the provincial capital of Hefei to the south, Lu'an ...
region and surrendered to the
Song A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetitio ...
government in 1121. They were recorded in the historical text '' History of Song'' in the annals of
Emperor Huizong of Song Emperor Huizong of Song (7 June 1082 – 4 June 1135), personal name Zhao Ji, was the eighth emperor of the Northern Song dynasty of China. He was also a very well-known calligrapher. Born as the 11th son of Emperor Shenzong, he ascended the ...
, which states: Zhang Shuye's biography further describes the activities of Song Jiang and the other outlaws, and tells they were eventually defeated by Zhang. Folk stories about Song Jiang circulated during the
Southern Song The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. ...
. The first known source to name Song Jiang's 36 companions was ''Miscellaneous Observations from the Year of Guixin'' (癸辛雜識) by Zhou Mi, written in the 13th century. Among the 36 are
Lu Junyi Lu Junyi is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels, four great classical novels of Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Jade Qilin", he ranks second among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 S ...
,
Guan Sheng Guan Sheng is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Great Blade", he ranks fifth among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 Stars of Destiny. Backgro ...
,
Ruan Xiao'er Ruan Xiao'er, also known as Ruan the Second, is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels in Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Tai Sui Who Stands His Ground", he ranks 27th among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the ...
,
Ruan Xiaowu Ruan may refer to: Buildings *Ruan Center, office building in Des Moines, Iowa *John Ruan House, historic mansion in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Places *Ruan, County Clare, Ireland *Ruan, Loiret, France *Mont Ruan, Switzerland *Ruan Major and Ru ...
,
Ruan Xiaoqi Ruan Xiaoqi, also known as Ruan the Seventh, is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels in Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Living King Yama", he ranks 31st among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third o ...
,
Liu Tang Liu Tang is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels in Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Red Haired Devil", he ranks 21st among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 Stars of Destiny. Backgrou ...
,
Hua Rong Hua Rong is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Little Li Guang", he ranks ninth among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 Stars of Destiny. Backgro ...
and
Wu Yong Wu Yong is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels in Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Knowledgeable Star", he ranks third among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 Stars of Destiny. Backg ...
. Some of the characters who later became associated with Song Jiang also appeared around this time. They include Sun Li, Yang Zhi,
Lin Chong Lin Chong is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels Classic Chinese Novels () are the best-known novels of pre-modern Chinese literature. These are among the world's longest and oldest novels. They ...
,
Lu Zhishen Lu Zhishen is a fictional character in '' Water Margin'', one of the four great classical novels in Chinese literature. He is the main character in the first segment of the novel, which spans about six chapters. Nicknamed "Flowery Monk", he ra ...
and
Wu Song Wu Song ( zh, c=武松, p=wǔ sōng), also known as Wu the Second ( zh, c=武二郎, p=wŭ èrláng, labels=no), is a legendary hero recounted since the 13th century; and one of the well-known fictional characters in the ''Water Margin'', one of ...
. A palace memorial by Hou Meng, included in the ''History of Song'', states: "Song Jiang and 36 others cross Qi and Wei (the central belt of the North China Plain) at will. Government troops number tens of thousands but no one dares oppose him. His abilities must be extraordinary. Since we also face plunders by Fang La and his outlaws from Qingxi, why not grant Song Jiang and his men amnesty and request them to lead a campaign against Fang La to redeem themselves?" A direct precursor of ''Water Margin'' is ''Old Incidents in the Xuanhe Period of the Great Song Dynasty'' (大宋宣和遺事), which appeared around the mid-13th century. The text is a written version of storytellers' tales based on supposed historical events. It is divided into ten chapters, roughly covering the history of the Song dynasty from the early 11th century to the establishment of the Southern Song regime in 1127. The fourth chapter covers the adventures of Song Jiang and his 36 companions, and their eventual defeat by Zhang Shuye. Versions of some of the stories and characters in ''Water Margin'' are clearly visible, including "Yang Zhi Sells His Precious Sabre", "Robbing the Convoy of Birthday Gifts", "Song Jiang Kills Yan Poxi", and "Fighting
Fang La Fang La (; died 1121) was a Chinese rebel leader who led an uprising against the Song dynasty. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', he is fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists and nemeses of the 108 Stars of Destiny. He is sometime ...
". Song Jiang and his outlaws are said to operate in the
Taihang Mountains The Taihang Mountains () are a Chinese mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Shanxi, Henan and Hebei provinces. The range extends over from north to south and has an average elevation of . The principal peak is ...
. Stories about the outlaws became a popular subject for
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
drama. During this time, the material on which ''Water Margin'' was based evolved into its current form. The number of outlaws increased to 108. Even though they come from different backgrounds, and include scholars, fishermen, imperial drill instructors, officers, and others, all of them eventually come to occupy
Mount Liang Mount Liang (, often referred to in Chinese as ) is a mountain in Liangshan County, Shandong, China which rises to 197.9 metres above sea level. It is well known as the stronghold of the 108 Heroes in the classic Chinese novel ''Water Margin ...
(or Liangshan Marsh).


Author's inspiration and dates

While the book's authorship is attributed to Shi Nai'an (1296–1372), there is an extensive academic debate on what historical events the author had witnessed that inspired him to write the book, which forms a wider debate on when the book was written. The first external reference of this book, which dated to 1524 during a chit-chat among
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
officials, is a crucial evidence. The date of external reference, 1524, was regarded as a reliable evidence because it presents strong
falsifiability Falsifiability is a standard of evaluation of scientific theories and hypotheses that was introduced by the philosopher of science Karl Popper in his book ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'' (1934). He proposed it as the cornerstone of a sol ...
. Other scholars put the date to the mid-14th century, sometime between the fall of the Mongol-ruled
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
and the early Ming dynasty. Both the Jiajing reign of Ming dynasty (1521-1568) and the closing years of Mongol-ruled
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
(1360s) were marked by a chain of rebellions, which confused scholars a lot as to which of the two inspired the author, and hence when was the book written. The proponents of the Yuan dynasty argued that ''Water Margin'' became popular during the Yuan as the common people (predominantly
Han Chinese The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive va ...
) resented the
Mongol The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member of ...
rulers. The ambivalence persisted into later times, and the
Chongzhen Emperor The Chongzhen Emperor (; 6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644), personal name Zhu Youjian (), courtesy name Deyue (),Wang Yuan (王源),''Ju ye tang wen ji'' (《居業堂文集》), vol. 19. "聞之張景蔚親見烈皇帝神主題御諱字德 ...
of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, acting on the advice of his ministers, banned the book.


Plot

The opening episode in the novel is the release of the 108 Spirits, imprisoned under an ancient stele-bearing tortoise. The next chapter describes the rise of
Gao Qiu Gao Qiu (1076?–1126) was a government official who lived during the Song dynasty of China and served in the court of Emperor Huizong. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', he is fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists and a nemesis ...
, one of the primary antagonists of the story. Gao abuses his status as a Grand Marshal by oppressing Wang Jin; Wang's father taught Gao a painful lesson when the latter was still a street-roaming ruffian. Wang Jin flees from the capital with his mother and by chance he meets
Shi Jin Shi Jin is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels in Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Nine-Tattoo Dragon", he ranks 23rd among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 Stars of Destiny. Backg ...
, who becomes his apprentice. The next few chapters tell the story of Shi Jin's friend
Lu Zhishen Lu Zhishen is a fictional character in '' Water Margin'', one of the four great classical novels in Chinese literature. He is the main character in the first segment of the novel, which spans about six chapters. Nicknamed "Flowery Monk", he ra ...
, followed by the story of Lu's sworn brother
Lin Chong Lin Chong is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels Classic Chinese Novels () are the best-known novels of pre-modern Chinese literature. These are among the world's longest and oldest novels. They ...
. Lin Chong is framed by Gao Qiu for attempting to assassinate him, and almost dies in a fire at a supply depot set by Gao's henchmen. He slays his foes and abandons the depot, eventually making his way to Liangshan Marsh, where he becomes an outlaw. Meanwhile, the "Original Seven", led by
Chao Gai Chao Gai, nicknamed "Pagoda-Shifting Heavenly King", is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. He is not one of the 108 Stars of Destiny because he dies before the Grand Assembly o ...
, rob a convoy of birthday gifts for the Imperial Tutor
Cai Jing Cai Jing (1047–1126), courtesy name Yuanchang (), was a Chinese calligrapher and politician who lived during the Northern Song dynasty of China. He is also fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four G ...
, another primary antagonist in the novel. They flee to Liangshan Marsh after defeating a group of soldiers sent by the authorities to arrest them, and settle there as outlaws with Chao Gai as their chief. As the story progresses, more people come to join the outlaw band, including military personnel and civil officials who grew tired of serving the corrupt government, as well as men with special skills and talents. Stories of the outlaws are told in separate sections in the following chapters. Connections between characters are vague, but the individual stories are eventually pieced together by chapter 60 when
Song Jiang A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition ...
succeeds Chao Gai as the leader of the band after the latter is killed in a battle against the Zeng Family Fortress. The plot further develops by illustrating the conflicts between the outlaws and the Song government after the Grand Assembly of the 108 outlaws. Song Jiang strongly advocates making peace with the government and seeking redress for the outlaws. After defeating the imperial army in a great battle at Liangshan Marsh, the outlaws eventually receive amnesty from Emperor Huizong. The emperor recruits them to form a military contingent and sends them on campaigns against invaders from the
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
and rebel forces led by
Tian Hu Tian Hu is a fictional character and antagonist in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. He is one of the three rebel leaders in the Song dynasty along with Fang La and Wang Qing, that the Liangshan he ...
, Wang Qing and
Fang La Fang La (; died 1121) was a Chinese rebel leader who led an uprising against the Song dynasty. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', he is fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists and nemeses of the 108 Stars of Destiny. He is sometime ...
within the Song dynasty's domain. Although the former outlaws eventually emerge victorious against the rebels and Liao invaders, the campaigns also led to the tragic dissolution of the 108 heroes. At least two-thirds of them died in battle while the surviving ones either return to the imperial capital to receive honours from the emperor and continue serving the Song government, or leave and spend the rest of their lives as commoners elsewhere. Song Jiang himself is eventually poisoned to death by the "Four Treacherous Ministers" –
Gao Qiu Gao Qiu (1076?–1126) was a government official who lived during the Song dynasty of China and served in the court of Emperor Huizong. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', he is fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists and a nemesis ...
, Yang Jian,
Tong Guan Tong Guan (1054–1126), courtesy name Daofu (), was a Chinese court eunuch, military general, political adviser, and state councillor to Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', Tong Guan is fictionalise ...
and
Cai Jing Cai Jing (1047–1126), courtesy name Yuanchang (), was a Chinese calligrapher and politician who lived during the Northern Song dynasty of China. He is also fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four G ...
.


Outline of chapters

This outline of chapters is based on a 100 chapters edition. Yang Dingjian's 120 chapters edition includes other campaigns of the outlaws on behalf of Song dynasty, while
Jin Shengtan Jin Shengtan (; 1610?7 August 1661), former name Jin Renrui (), also known as Jin Kui (), was a Chinese editor, writer and critic, who has been called the champion of Vernacular Chinese literature. Biography The year of Jin's birth is unclear, ...
's 70 chapters edition omits the chapters on the outlaws' acceptance of amnesty and subsequent campaigns. The extended version includes the Liangshan heroes' expeditions against the rebel leaders Tian Hu and Wang Qing prior to the campaign against Fang La. Other stories are told such as the heroes fighting the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty or moving to
Siam Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 mi ...
.


Themes

''Water Margin'', praised as an early "masterpiece" of vernacular fiction, is renowned for the "mastery and control" of its mood and tone. The novel is also known for its use of vivid, humorous and especially racy language. However, it has been denounced as "obscene" by various critics since the Ming dynasty.
Susan L. Mann Susan Louise Mann (born 1943) is an American historian of China best known for her work on the Qing dynasty and the role of women and gender in Chinese history. She was professor of History at University of California, Davis from 1989 until her ...
writes that the "desire for male camaraderie" is "far from a mere plotline," for it is a basic theme of this and other classic novels. She places the novel's male characters in a tradition of men's culture of mutual trust and reciprocal obligation, such as figures known as the Chinese
knight-errant A knight-errant (or knight errant) is a figure of medieval chivalric romance literature. The adjective '' errant'' (meaning "wandering, roving") indicates how the knight-errant would wander the land in search of adventures to prove his chivalric ...
. Sima Qian, the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
historian, devoted a section to biographies: "Their words were always sincere and trustworthy, and their actions always quick and decisive. They were always true to what they promised, and without regard to their own persons, they would rush into dangers threatening others." She finds such figures in this and other novels, such as ''
Romance of the Three Kingdoms ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 184 AD and ...
'' and ''
Journey to the West ''Journey to the West'' () is a Chinese novel published in the 16th century during the Ming dynasty and attributed to Wu Cheng'en. It is regarded as one of the greatest Classic Chinese Novels, and has been described as arguably the most popu ...
'', all of which dramatized the "empathic emotional attraction between men who appreciate and play off against one another's complementary qualities." Licentious and treacherous women are another recurring theme. Modern critics have debated whether ''Water Margin'' is
misogynistic Misogyny () is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women. It is a form of sexism that is used to keep women at a lower social status than men, thus maintaining the societal roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been widely practiced fo ...
. Most beautiful women in the novel are depicted as immoral and cruel, and they are often involved in schemes against the protagonists. Among them is
Pan Jinlian Pan Jinlian () is a fictional character in the 17th-century Chinese novel ''Jin Ping Mei'' (''The Plum in the Golden Vase)'', and a minor character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. She is an arch ...
, the sister-in-law of
Wu Song Wu Song ( zh, c=武松, p=wǔ sōng), also known as Wu the Second ( zh, c=武二郎, p=wŭ èrláng, labels=no), is a legendary hero recounted since the 13th century; and one of the well-known fictional characters in the ''Water Margin'', one of ...
, who has later become an archetypal
femme fatale A ''femme fatale'' ( or ; ), sometimes called a maneater or vamp, is a stock character of a mysterious, beautiful, and seductive woman whose charms ensnare her lovers, often leading them into compromising, deadly traps. She is an archetype of ...
and one of the most notorious villainesses of classical Chinese culture. On the other hand, the few "good" women in the story, like
Sun Erniang Sun Erniang (literally "Second Sister Sun") is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels in Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Female Yaksha", she ranks 103rd among the 108 Stars of Destiny and 67th among the ...
and
Gu Dasao Gu Dasao (literally "Elder Sister-in-Law Gu") is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Female Tiger", she ranks 101st among the 108 Stars of Destiny and 65th among the ...
, are not particularly noted for their beauty, or are even described as being plain or ugly. The leader of the outlaws,
Song Jiang A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition ...
admonished "Any outlaw that meddles with women is contemptible." Critics offer various explanations for ''Water Margins prejudice against women. Most common among modern Chinese critics is the
patriarchal society Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of dominance and privilege are primarily held by men. It is used, both as a technical anthropological term for families or clans controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males ...
of the
Imperial China The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapte ...
. Professor Sun Shuyu of
The Chinese University of Hong Kong The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) is a public research university in Ma Liu Shui, Hong Kong, formally established in 1963 by a charter granted by the Legislative Council of Hong Kong. It is the territory's second-oldest university and ...
argues that the author(s) of ''Water Margin'' intentionally vilified women in order to discipline their would-be-outlaw audiences.


Authorship

Since fiction was not at first a prestigious genre in the Chinese literary world, authorship of early novels was not attributed and may be unknowable. The authorship of ''Water Margin'' is still in some sense uncertain, and the text in any case derived from many sources and involved many editorial hands. While the novel was traditionally attributed to
Shi Nai'an Shi Nai'an (, ca. 1296–1372) was a Chinese writer from the Yuan and early Ming periods. ''Shuihu zhuan'' (''Water Margin''), one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, is traditionally attributed to him. There are few re ...
, of whose life nothing is reliably known, recent scholars think that the novel, or portions of it, may have been written or revised by
Luo Guanzhong Luo Ben (c. 1330–1400, or c.1280–1360), better known by his courtesy name Guanzhong (Mandarin pronunciation: ), was a Chinese writer who lived during the Ming dynasty. He was also known by his pseudonym Huhai Sanren (). Luo was attri ...
(the author of ''
Romance of the Three Kingdoms ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 184 AD and ...
''). Other contenders include Shi Hui (施惠) and Guo Xun (郭勛).


Shi Nai'an

Many scholars believe that the first 70 chapters were indeed written by Shi Nai'an; however the authorship of the final 30 chapters is often questioned, with some speculating that it was instead written by Luo Guanzhong, who may have been a student of Shi. Another theory, which first appeared in
Gao Ru Gao , or Gawgaw/Kawkaw, is a city in Mali and the capital of the Gao Region. The city is located on the River Niger, east-southeast of Timbuktu on the left bank at the junction with the Tilemsi valley. For much of its history Gao was an impor ...
's ''Baichuan Shuzhi'' (百川書志) during the Ming dynasty, suggests that the whole novel was written and compiled by Shi, and then edited by Luo. Shi drew from oral and written texts that had accumulated over time. Stories of the Liangshan outlaws first appeared in ''Old incidents in the Xuanhe period of the great Song dynasty'' (大宋宣和遺事) and had been circulating since the Southern Song dynasty, while folk tales and opera related to ''Water Margin'' have already existed long before the novel itself came into existence. This theory suggests that Shi Nai'an gathered and compiled these pieces of information to write ''Water Margin''.


Luo Guanzhong

Some believe that ''Water Margin'' was written entirely by Luo Guanzhong. Wang Daokun (汪道昆), who lived during the reign of the
Jiajing Emperor The Jiajing Emperor (; 16September 150723January 1567) was the 12th List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1521 to 1567. Born Zhu Houcong, he was the former Zhengde Emperor's cousin. His father, Zhu You ...
in the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, first mentioned in ''Classification of Water Margin'' (水滸傳敘) that: "someone with the family name Luo, who was a native of
Wuyue Wuyue (; ), 907–978, was an independent coastal kingdom founded during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960) of Chinese history. It was ruled by the Haiyan Qian clan (海盐钱氏), whose family name remains widespread in t ...
(Yue (a reference to the southern China region covering
Zhejiang Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Jiang ...
), wrote the 100-chapter novel." Several scholars from the Ming and
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...
dynasties, after Wang Daokun's time, also said that Luo was the author of ''Water Margin''. During the early
Republican era Republican Era can refer to: * Minguo calendar, the official era of the Republic of China It may also refer to any era in a country's history when it was governed as a republic or by a Republican Party. In particular, it may refer to: * Roman Re ...
,
Lu Xun Zhou Shuren (25 September 1881 – 19 October 1936), better known by his pen name Lu Xun (or Lu Sun; ; Wade–Giles: Lu Hsün), was a Chinese writer, essayist, poet, and literary critic. He was a leading figure of modern Chinese literature. W ...
and
Yu Pingbo Yu Pingbo (; January 8, 1900 – October 15, 1990), original name Yu Mingheng () and courtesy name Pingbo (), was a Chinese essayist, poet, historian, redologist, and literary critic. Early life Yu Pingbo's ancestry can be traced to Deqing, Zhe ...
suggested that the simplified edition of ''Water Margin'' was written by Luo, while the traditional version was by Shi Nai'an. However, Huikang Yesou (惠康野叟) in ''Shi Yu'' (識餘) disagree with Wang Daokun's view on the grounds that there were significant differences between ''Water Margin'' and ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', therefore these two novels could not have been written by the same person.
Hu Shih Hu Shih (; 17 December 1891 – 24 February 1962), also known as Hu Suh in early references, was a Chinese diplomat, essayist, literary scholar, philosopher, and politician. Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese libera ...
felt that the draft of ''Water Margin'' was done by Luo Guanzhong, and could have contained the chapters on the outlaws' campaigns against
Tian Hu Tian Hu is a fictional character and antagonist in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. He is one of the three rebel leaders in the Song dynasty along with Fang La and Wang Qing, that the Liangshan he ...
, Wang Qing and
Fang La Fang La (; died 1121) was a Chinese rebel leader who led an uprising against the Song dynasty. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', he is fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists and nemeses of the 108 Stars of Destiny. He is sometime ...
, but not invaders from the
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
. Another theory states that Luo Guanzhong was from the Southern Song period vice the Ming dynasty. Cheng Muheng (程穆衡) suggested in ''Notes on Water Margin'' (水滸傳注略) that Luo lived in the late Southern Song dynasty and early Yuan era. Huang Lin'gen (黃霖根) pointed out that the name of one of the compilers of ''Anecdotes of Jingkang'' (靖康稗史) was Nai'an, and suggested that this "Nai'an", who lived during the Southern Song dynasty, was Shi Nai'an. He also felt that Shi wrote a simplified version of ''Water Margin'', which is not the current edition.


Shi Hui

Another candidate is Shi Hui (施惠), a '' nanxi'' (''southern opera'') playwright who lived between the late
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
and early
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
. Xu Fuzuo (徐復祚) of the Ming dynasty mentioned in ''Sanjia Cunlao Weitan'' (三家村老委談) that Junmei (君美; Shi Hui's
courtesy name A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theobald ...
)'s intention in writing ''Water Margin'' was to entertain people, and not to convey any message. During the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
, Shi Hui and Shi Nai'an were linked, suggesting that they are actually the same person. An unnamed writer wrote in ''Chuanqi Huikao Biaomu'' (傳奇會考標目) that Shi Nai'an's given name was actually "Hui", courtesy name "Juncheng" (君承), and he was a native of
Hangzhou Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the province, sitting at the head of Hangzhou Bay, whi ...
. Sun Kaidi (孫楷第) also wrote in ''Bibliography of Chinese Popular Fiction'' that "Nai'an" was Shi Hui's pseudonym. Later studies revealed that ''Water Margin'' contained lines in the Jiangsu and Zhejiang variety of Chinese, and that ''You Gui Ji'' (幽闺记), a work of Shi Hui, bore some resemblance to ''Water Margin'', hence the theory that ''Water Margin'' was authored by Shi Hui.


Guo Xun

Early scholars attributed the authorship to Guo Xun (郭勛), a politician who lived in the Ming dynasty.
Shen Defu Shen Defu () (1578–1642) was a Chinese writer and bureaucrat during the Ming Dynasty. He lived in Zhejiang. In 1618, he achieved the rank of ''juren'' in the Imperial examinations, but failed an exam for promotion to the rank of ''jinshi'' a yea ...
(沈德符), a late Ming dynasty scholar, mentioned in ''Wanli Yehuo Bian'' (萬曆野獲編) that Guo wrote ''Water Margin''.
Shen Guoyuan __NOTOC__ Shen may refer to: * Shen (Chinese religion) (神), a central word in Chinese philosophy, religion, and traditional Chinese medicine; term for god or spirit * Shen (clam-monster) (蜃), a shapeshifting Chinese dragon believed to create mi ...
(沈國元) added in ''Huangming Congxin Lu'' (皇明從信錄) that Guo mimicked the writing styles of ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Water Margin'' to write ''Guochao Yinglie Ji'' (國朝英烈記). Qian Xiyan (錢希言) also stated in ''Xi Gu'' (戲嘏) that Guo edited ''Water Margin'' before.
Hu Shih Hu Shih (; 17 December 1891 – 24 February 1962), also known as Hu Suh in early references, was a Chinese diplomat, essayist, literary scholar, philosopher, and politician. Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese libera ...
countered in his ''Research on Water Margin'' (水滸傳新考) that Guo Xun's name was used as a disguise for the real author of ''Water Margin''. Dai Bufan (戴不凡) had a differing view, as he suspected that Guo wrote ''Water Margin'', and then used "Shi Nai'an" to conceal his identity as the author of the novel


Editions

The textual history of the novel is extraordinarily complex for it includes oral folklore, storytellers' tales, and printed versions of different parts and variations. Not until the 1920s were there studies which began to set these questions in order, and there is still disagreement. The earliest components of the ''Water Margin'' (in manuscript copies) were from the late 14th century. The earliest extant complete printed edition of ''Water Margin'' is a 100-chapter version published in 1589. Another edition, with 120 chapters by Yang Dingjian (楊定見), has been preserved from the reign of the
Wanli Emperor The Wanli Emperor (; 4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), personal name Zhu Yijun (), was the 14th Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1572 to 1620. "Wanli", the era name of his reign, literally means "ten thousand calendars". He was the ...
(1573–1620) in the Ming dynasty. Yet other editions were published in the early
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
. One of the most widely read
editions Edition may refer to: * Edition (book), a bibliographical term for a substantially similar set of copies * Edition (printmaking), a publishing term for a set print run * Edition (textual criticism), a particular version of a text * Edition Records ...
was published by
Jin Shengtan Jin Shengtan (; 1610?7 August 1661), former name Jin Renrui (), also known as Jin Kui (), was a Chinese editor, writer and critic, who has been called the champion of Vernacular Chinese literature. Biography The year of Jin's birth is unclear, ...
in 1643, reprinted many times. Jin provided three introductions that praised the novel as a work of genius and inserted commentaries into the text that explained how to read the novel. He cut matter that he thought irrelevant, reducing the number of chapters to 70. A printed copy of the ''Water Margin'', dating from the
Jiajing Emperor The Jiajing Emperor (; 16September 150723January 1567) was the 12th List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1521 to 1567. Born Zhu Houcong, he was the former Zhengde Emperor's cousin. His father, Zhu You ...
's reign in the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, titled ''Jingben Zhongyi Zhuan'' (京本忠義傳), is preserved in the
Shanghai Library The Shanghai Library, which also houses the Shanghai Institute of Scientific and Technological Information, is the municipal library of Shanghai, China. It is the largest library in China. At 24 stories and 348 feet (106 m) tall, it is the second ...
. The various editions of ''Water Margin'' can roughly be classified into two groups - simplified and traditional.


Simplified editions

The simplified editions include stories on the outlaws being granted amnesty, followed by their campaigns against the
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
,
Tian Hu Tian Hu is a fictional character and antagonist in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. He is one of the three rebel leaders in the Song dynasty along with Fang La and Wang Qing, that the Liangshan he ...
, Wang Qing and
Fang La Fang La (; died 1121) was a Chinese rebel leader who led an uprising against the Song dynasty. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', he is fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists and nemeses of the 108 Stars of Destiny. He is sometime ...
, all the way until
Song Jiang A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition ...
's death. At one point, the later chapters were compiled into a separate novel, titled ''Sequel to Water Margin'' (續水滸傳), which is attributed to
Luo Guanzhong Luo Ben (c. 1330–1400, or c.1280–1360), better known by his courtesy name Guanzhong (Mandarin pronunciation: ), was a Chinese writer who lived during the Ming dynasty. He was also known by his pseudonym Huhai Sanren (). Luo was attri ...
. Known simplified editions of ''Water Margin'' include: * A 115-chapter edition, ''Masterpieces of the Han and Song dynasties'' (漢宋奇書) * A 110-chapter edition, ''Chronicles of Heroes'' (英雄譜) * A 164-chapter edition, combined with ''Sequel to Water Margin''


Complex editions

The complex editions are more descriptive and circulated more widely than their simplified counterparts. The three main versions of the complex editions are a 100-chapter, a 120-chapter and a 70-chapter edition. The most commonly modified parts of the complex editions are the stories on what happened after the outlaws are granted amnesty. * 100-chapter edition: Includes the outlaws' campaigns against the
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
and
Fang La Fang La (; died 1121) was a Chinese rebel leader who led an uprising against the Song dynasty. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', he is fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists and nemeses of the 108 Stars of Destiny. He is sometime ...
after they have been granted amnesty. * 120-chapter edition: An extended version of the 100-chapter edition, includes the outlaws' campaigns against
Tian Hu Tian Hu is a fictional character and antagonist in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. He is one of the three rebel leaders in the Song dynasty along with Fang La and Wang Qing, that the Liangshan he ...
and Wang Qing (chapters 91 to 110). * 70-chapter edition: Edited by
Jin Shengtan Jin Shengtan (; 1610?7 August 1661), former name Jin Renrui (), also known as Jin Kui (), was a Chinese editor, writer and critic, who has been called the champion of Vernacular Chinese literature. Biography The year of Jin's birth is unclear, ...
in the late
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, this edition uses Chapter 1 as a prologue and ends at Chapter 71 of the original version, and does not include the stories about the outlaws being granted amnesty and their campaigns.


Translations

''Water Margin'' has been translated into many languages. The book was translated into
Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...
as Möllendorff: Sui hū bithe. Japanese translations date back to at least 1757, when the first volume of an early ''Suikoden'' (''Water Margin'' rendered in Japanese) was printed. Other early adaptations include Takebe Ayakari's 1773 ''Japanese Water Margin'' (''Honcho suikoden''), the 1783 ''Women's Water Margin'' (''Onna suikoden''), and
Santō Kyōden Santō Kyōden (山東 京伝, 13 September 1761 Edo – 27 October 1816) was a Japanese artist, writer, and the owner of a tobacco shop during the Edo period. His real name was Iwase Samuru (岩瀬 醒), and he was also known popularly as Kyō ...
's 1801 ''Chushingura Water Margin'' (''Chushingura suikoden''). In 1805,
Kyokutei Bakin (), a.k.a. (, 4 July 1767 – 1 December 1848), was a Japanese novelist of the Edo period. Born (), he wrote under the pen name (). Later in life he took the pen name (). Modern scholarship generally refers to him as , or just as n. He is ...
released a Japanese translation of the ''Water Margin'' illustrated by
Hokusai , known simply as Hokusai, was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist of the Edo period, active as a painter and printmaker. He is best known for the woodblock printing in Japan, woodblock print series ''Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji'', which includes the ...
. The book, called the ''New Illustrated Edition of the Suikoden'' (''Shinpen Suikogaden''), was a success during the
Edo period The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characteriz ...
and spurred a Japanese "Suikoden" craze. In 1827, publisher
Kagaya Kichibei Kagaya is a Japanese family name and may refer to: * Ken Kagaya (politician) (1943–2014), Japanese Democratic Party politician * Ken Kagaya (artist) (1944–2003), Japanese painter and writer * Kagaya Yutaka (born 1968), Japanese digital artist ...
commissioned
Utagawa Kuniyoshi Utagawa Kuniyoshi ( ja, 歌川 国芳, ; January 1, 1798 – April 14, 1861) was one of the last great masters of the Japanese ukiyo-e style of woodblock prints and painting.Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric ''et al'' (2005). "Kuniyoshi" in He was a ...
to produce a series of woodblock prints illustrating the 108 heroes in ''Water Margin''. The 1827–1830 series, called ''108 Heroes of the Water Margin'' or ''Tsuzoku Suikoden goketsu hyakuhachinin no hitori'', catapulted Kuniyoshi to fame. It also brought about a craze for multicoloured pictorial tattoos that covered the entire body from the neck to the mid-thigh. Following the great commercial success of the Kuniyoshi series, other
ukiyo-e Ukiyo-e is a genre of Japanese art which flourished from the 17th through 19th centuries. Its artists produced woodblock prints and paintings Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surfac ...
artists were commissioned to produce prints of the ''Water Margin'' heroes, which began to be shown as Japanese heroes rather than the original Chinese personages. Among these later series was
Yoshitoshi Tsukioka Yoshitoshi ( ja, 月岡 芳年; also named Taiso Yoshitoshi ; 30 April 1839 – 9 June 1892) was a Japanese printmaker.Louis-Frédéric, Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric. (2005)"Tsukoka Kōgyō"in ''Japan Encyclopedia,'' p. 10 ...
's 1866–1867 series of 50 designs in Chuban size, which are darker than Kuniyoshi's and feature strange ghosts and monsters. A recent Japanese translation is The book was first translated into Thai in 1867, originally in samud thai (Thai paper book) format, consisting of 82 volumes in total. It was printed in western style in 1879 and distributed commercially by Dan Beach Bradley, an American Protestant missionary to Siam.
Jacques Dars Jacques Dars (1941 – 28 December 2010) was a French sinologist and translator.Michel, Albin.Décès du sinologue Jacques Dars" ''Agence France Presse'' at ''Le Figaro''. 4 January 2011. Retrieved on 8 December 2013. "Polyglotte, il parlait plus d ...
translated the book into French and its 1st edition was published in 1978.
Pearl S. Buck Pearl Sydenstricker Buck (June 26, 1892 – March 6, 1973) was an American writer and novelist. She is best known for ''The Good Earth'' a bestselling novel in the United States in 1931 and 1932 and won the Pulitzer Prize for the Novel, Pulitze ...
was the first English translator of the entire 70-chapter version. Titled ''All Men are Brothers'' and published in 1933. The book was well received by the American public. However, it was also criticised for its errors, such as the mistranslation of
Lu Zhishen Lu Zhishen is a fictional character in '' Water Margin'', one of the four great classical novels in Chinese literature. He is the main character in the first segment of the novel, which spans about six chapters. Nicknamed "Flowery Monk", he ra ...
's nickname "Flowery Monk" as "Priest Hua". In 1937, another complete translation appeared, titled ''Water Margin,'' by J. H. Jackson, edited by Fang Lo-Tien. Later translations include Chinese-naturalised scholar
Sidney Shapiro Sidney Shapiro () (December 23, 1915 – October 18, 2014) was an American-born Chinese lawyer, translator, actor and writer who lived in China from 1947 to 2014. He lived in Beijing for more than 50 years and eventually became a member of the ...
's ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' (1980). However, as it was published during the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goal ...
, this edition received little attention then. It is a translation of a combination of both the 70-chapter and 100-chapter versions. The most recent translation, titled ''The Marshes Of Mount Liang,'' by Alex and John Dent-Young, is a five-volume translation of the 120-chapter version. Includes a prologue but omits the foreword by Shi Nai'an and some passages related to the official details of the Ming Dynasty. These translations differ in the selection of texts and completeness. The Jackson translation is the only translation to contain
Shi Nai'an Shi Nai'an (, ca. 1296–1372) was a Chinese writer from the Yuan and early Ming periods. ''Shuihu zhuan'' (''Water Margin''), one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, is traditionally attributed to him. There are few re ...
's foreword. The Shapiro translation omits the prologue, the foreword, and most of the poems. The Dent-Young translation omits the author's foreword and the passages concerning the
Ming Dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
administration and the translators admitted to compromising some details and retaining inconsistencies in their ''Brief Note on the Translation''.


Influences and adaptations


Literature

''
Jin Ping Mei ''Jin Ping Mei'' () — translated into English as ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' or ''The Golden Lotus'' — is a Chinese novel of manners composed in vernacular Chinese during the latter half of the 16th century during the late Ming dynasty ...
'' is an erotic novel written under the
pen-name A pen name, also called a ''nom de plume'' or a literary double, is a pseudonym (or, in some cases, a variant form of a real name) adopted by an author and printed on the title page or by-line of their works in place of their real name. A pen na ...
Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng (蘭陵笑笑生) ("The Scoffing Scholar of Lanling") in the late
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
. The novel is based on the story of
Wu Song Wu Song ( zh, c=武松, p=wǔ sōng), also known as Wu the Second ( zh, c=武二郎, p=wŭ èrláng, labels=no), is a legendary hero recounted since the 13th century; and one of the well-known fictional characters in the ''Water Margin'', one of ...
avenging his brother in ''Water Margin'', but the focus is on
Ximen Qing Ximen Qing () is a fictional Chinese Song dynasty merchant, womanizer, and murderer in Yanggu County, Shandong. He is the male protagonist in the novel ''Jin Ping Mei'' and a minor character in the novel ''Water Margin''. In both novels, he is ...
's sexual relations with other women, including
Pan Jinlian Pan Jinlian () is a fictional character in the 17th-century Chinese novel ''Jin Ping Mei'' (''The Plum in the Golden Vase)'', and a minor character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. She is an arch ...
. In ''Water Margin'', Ximen Qing is killed by Wu Song for murdering the latter's brother, while in ''Jin Ping Mei'' he dies a horrible death due to an accidental overdose of aphrodisiac pills. ''Shuihu Houzhuan'' (水滸後傳), which roughly translates to ''The Later Story of Water Margin'', is a novel written by Chen Chen (陳忱) in the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
. The story is set after the end of the original ''Water Margin'', with Li Jun as the protagonist. It tells of how the surviving Liangshan heroes are forced to become outlaws again due to corruption in the government. When the armies of the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty invade the Song dynasty, the heroes rise up to defend their nation from the invaders. The heroes eventually decide to leave China for good and sail to distant lands. Apart from the surviving Liangshan heroes from the original novel, ''Shuihu Houzhuan'' also introduces new characters such as
Hua Rong Hua Rong is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Little Li Guang", he ranks ninth among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 Stars of Destiny. Backgro ...
's son Hua Fengchun (花逢春),
Xu Ning Xu Ning is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the four great classical novels in Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Gold Lancer", he ranks 18th among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 Stars of Destiny. Background T ...
's son Xu Sheng (徐晟) and
Huyan Zhuo Huyan Zhuo is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Double Clubs", hə ranks eighth among the 36 Heavenly Spirits (天罡), the first third of the 108 Stars of Destiny ...
's son Huyan Yu (呼延鈺). ''Dang Kou Zhi'' (蕩寇志), which roughly translates to ''The Tale of Eliminating Bandits'', is a novel written by Yu Wanchun (俞萬春) during the reign of the
Daoguang Emperor The Daoguang Emperor (; 16 September 1782 – 26 February 1850), also known by his temple name Emperor Xuanxong of Qing, born Mianning, was the seventh Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the sixth Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning ...
in the Qing dynasty. Yu disagreed that the Liangshan outlaws are loyal and righteous heroes, and was determined to portray them as ruthless mass murderers and destroyers, hence he wrote ''Dang Kou Zhi''. The novel, which starts at the Grand Assembly of the 108 outlaws at Liangshan Marsh, tells of how the outlaws plundered and pillaged cities before they are eventually eliminated by government forces led by Zhang Shuye (張叔夜) and his lieutenants Chen Xizhen (陳希真) and Yun Tianbiao (雲天彪). The Qing dynasty writer Qian Cai intertwined the life stories of
Yue Fei Yue Fei ( zh, t=岳飛; March 24, 1103 – January 28, 1142), courtesy name Pengju (), was a Chinese military general who lived during the Song dynasty, Southern Song dynasty and a national hero of China, known for leading Southern Song force ...
and the outlaws
Lin Chong Lin Chong is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels Classic Chinese Novels () are the best-known novels of pre-modern Chinese literature. These are among the world's longest and oldest novels. They ...
and
Lu Junyi Lu Junyi is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels, four great classical novels of Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Jade Qilin", he ranks second among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 S ...
in '' The Story of Yue Fei'' (1684). He stated that the latter were former students of the general's martial arts tutor, Zhou Tong. However, literary critic C. T. Hsia commented that the connection was a fictional one created by the author. The Republican era folktale '' Swordplay Under the Moon'', by Wang Shaotang, further intertwines Yue Fei's history with the outlaws by adding
Wu Song Wu Song ( zh, c=武松, p=wǔ sōng), also known as Wu the Second ( zh, c=武二郎, p=wŭ èrláng, labels=no), is a legendary hero recounted since the 13th century; and one of the well-known fictional characters in the ''Water Margin'', one of ...
to the list of Zhou's former students. The tale is set in the background of Wu Song's mission to Kaifeng, prior to the murder of his brother. Zhou tutors Wu in the "rolling dragon" style of swordplay during his one-month stay in the capital city. It also said that Zhou is a
sworn brother Blood brother can refer to two or more men not related by birth who have sworn loyalty to each other. This is in modern times usually done in a ceremony, known as a blood oath, where each person makes a small cut, usually on a finger, hand or ...
of
Lu Zhishen Lu Zhishen is a fictional character in '' Water Margin'', one of the four great classical novels in Chinese literature. He is the main character in the first segment of the novel, which spans about six chapters. Nicknamed "Flowery Monk", he ra ...
and shares the same nickname with the executioner-turned-outlaw
Cai Fu Cai Fu is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels in Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Iron Arm", he ranks 94th among the 108 Stars of Destiny and 58th among the 72 Earthly Fiends. Background Living in D ...
.
Frank Chin Frank Chin (born February 25, 1940) is an American author and playwright. He is considered to be one of the pioneers of Asian-American theatre. Life and career Frank Chin was born in Berkeley, California on February 25, 1940; until the age of s ...
's novel, ''
Donald Duk ''Donald Duk'' is a Bildungsroman, coming-of-age novel written by Frank Chin, first published in February 1991. It is about an eleven-year-old boy turning twelve, completing a cycle of the Chinese zodiac, in San Francisco, and his struggles juggl ...
'', contains many references to the ''Water Margin''.
Song Jiang A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition ...
and Li Kui make several appearances in the protagonist's dreams. ''Rise of the Water Margin'' (水滸再起) is a novel launched in 2022 by the American author Christopher Bates in which all of the Chinese characters and their approximate character arcs are 21st century modernizations of people in ''The Water Margin''. In this cyber-thriller, the characters of
Lin Chong Lin Chong is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels Classic Chinese Novels () are the best-known novels of pre-modern Chinese literature. These are among the world's longest and oldest novels. They ...
, Lu Da,
Gao Qiu Gao Qiu (1076?–1126) was a government official who lived during the Song dynasty of China and served in the court of Emperor Huizong. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', he is fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists and a nemesis ...
, Gao Yanei, Zhang Zhenniang, Fu An, Cai Jing, Chai Jin, Wang Lun, Zhu Gui, Zhao Ji, Li Shishi and many others appear. The location of Liangshanpo is a deserted ghost city known to its investors as Mount Liang Swamp, repurposed as a hacker enclave.
Eiji Yoshikawa was a Japanese historical novelist. Among his best-known novels are revisions of older classics. He was mainly influenced by classics such as ''The Tale of the Heike'', ''Tale of Genji'', ''Water Margin'' and ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', m ...
wrote ''Shin Suikoden'' (新水滸伝), which roughly translates to "New Tales from the Water Margin". In addition to its colossal popularity in China, ''Water Margin'' has been identified as one of the most influential works in the development of early modern Japanese literature.


Comics

''Water Margin'' is referred to in numerous Japanese
manga Manga (Japanese: 漫画 ) are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century, and the form has a long prehistory in earlier Japanese art. The term ''manga'' is u ...
, such as
Tetsuo Hara is a Japanese manga artist. He is best-known for creating the post-apocalyptic martial arts series ''Fist of the North Star'' (1983–1988) with writer Buronson, which is one of the best-selling manga in history with over 100 million copies i ...
and
Buronson , known by the pen names and , is a Japanese manga writer. Making his debut in 1972, he first found success with the hardboiled detective manga series ''Doberman Deka'' (1975–1979) alongside illustrator Shinji Hiramatsu. He is best-known for ...
's ''
Fist of the North Star is a Japanese manga series written by Buronson and illustrated by Tetsuo Hara. It was serialized in Shueisha's Shōnen manga, ''shōnen'' manga magazine ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' for 245 issues published from 1983 to 1988 and initially colle ...
'', and
Masami Kurumada is a Japanese manga artist and writer, known for specializing in fighting manga featuring bishōnen and magical boy. He is the founder of the manga studio Kurumada Productions or Kurumadapro for short. He is famous as the creator/author of popu ...
's '' Fūma no Kojirō'', ''Otokozaka'' and ''
Saint Seiya , also known as ''Saint Seiya: Knights of the Zodiac'' or simply ''Knights of the Zodiac'' (translated from the French title ''Les Chevaliers du Zodiaque''), is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Masami Kurumada. It ...
''. In both works of fiction, characters bearing the same stars of the ''Water Margin'' characters as personal emblems of destiny are featured prominently. A Japanese manga called '' Akaboshi: Ibun Suikoden'', based on the story of ''Water Margin'', was serialised in ''Weekly Shonen Jump''. A Hong Kong
manhua () are Chinese-language comics produced in China and Taiwan. Whilst Chinese comics and narrated illustrations have existed in China in some shape or form throughout its imperial history, the term first appeared in 1904 in a comic titled ''Cu ...
series based on ''Water Margin'' was also created by the artist
Lee Chi Ching Lee Chi Ching (; born 1963) is a Hong Kong manhua illustrator with the pen name "清兒". Lee began drawing comics and graphic novels in 1981. In 1992, he won an award for his watercolors at the Hong Kong Contemporary Art Biennial and had his wo ...
. A reimagined series based on ''Water Margin'', ''108 Fighters'', was created by
Andy Seto Andy Seto (; born 3 June 1969) is a comic artist who specialises in martial-arts based stories. Biography Seto's works include his main series, "Cyber Weapon Z." He has also drawn a graphic novel adaptation of the earlier Crouching Tiger, Hidd ...
. Between 1978 and 1988, the Italian artist
Magnus Magnus, meaning "Great" in Latin, was used as cognomen of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus in the first century BC. The best-known use of the name during the Roman Empire is for the fourth-century Western Roman Emperor Magnus Maximus. The name gained wid ...
published four acts of his work ''I Briganti'', which places the ''Water Margin'' story in a setting that mixes Chinese, Western and
science fiction Science fiction (sometimes shortened to Sci-Fi or SF) is a genre of speculative fiction which typically deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, parallel unive ...
(in
Flash Gordon Flash Gordon is the protagonist of a space adventure comic strip created and originally drawn by Alex Raymond. First published January 7, 1934, the strip was inspired by, and created to compete with, the already established ''Buck Rogers'' adve ...
style) elements. Before his death in 1996, the four completed "acts" were published in a volume by Granata Press; two following "acts" were planned but never completed. In 2007, Asiapac Books published a graphic narrative version of portions of the novel.


Film

Most film adaptations of ''Water Margin'' were produced by Hong Kong's
Shaw Brothers Studio Shaw Brothers (HK) Ltd. () was the largest film production company in Hong Kong, and operated from 1925 to 2011. In 1925, three Shaw brothers— Runje, Runme, and Runde—founded Tianyi Film Company (also called "Unique") in Shangh ...
and mostly released in the 1970s and 1980s. They include: ''
The Water Margin ''Water Margin'' (''Shuihu zhuan'') is one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin, and is attributed to Shi Nai'an. It is also translated as ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' and ''All Men Are Brothers''. The story, which is ...
'' (1972), directed by
Chang Cheh Chang Cheh (; 10 February 1923 – 22 June 2002) was a Chinese people, Chinese filmmaker, screenwriter, lyricist and producer active in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. Chang Cheh directed more than 90 films in Greater China, the majority of them wi ...
and others; ''
Delightful Forest ''Delightful Forest'' is a Hong Kong films of 1972, 1972 Hong Kong film directed by Chang Cheh. Cast *Ti Lung *Tin Ching *Zhu Mu *Lee Man Tai *Chiang Nan *Nam Wai Lit *Wong Kwong Yue *Wong Ching Ho *Yue Fung *Kong Ling References External ...
'' (1972), directed by Chang Cheh again and starring
Ti Lung Ti Lung (born 19 August 1946) is a Hong Kong actor, known for his numerous starring roles in a string of Shaw Brothers Studio's films, particularly '' The Blood Brothers'', '' The Avenging Eagle'', ''Clans of Intrigue'', '' The Duel'', ''The Senti ...
as
Wu Song Wu Song ( zh, c=武松, p=wǔ sōng), also known as Wu the Second ( zh, c=武二郎, p=wŭ èrláng, labels=no), is a legendary hero recounted since the 13th century; and one of the well-known fictional characters in the ''Water Margin'', one of ...
; '' Pursuit'' (1972), directed by Kang Cheng and starring
Elliot Ngok Yueh Hua (; 14 July 1942 – 20 October 2018) was a Shanghai-born Hong Kong actor, later based in Canada, with Shaw Brothers Studio and TVB. Yueh is one of the most versatile and prolific leading actors of Shaw Brothers. Yueh starred in five ...
as
Lin Chong Lin Chong is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels Classic Chinese Novels () are the best-known novels of pre-modern Chinese literature. These are among the world's longest and oldest novels. They ...
; ''
All Men Are Brothers ''Water Margin'' (''Shuihu zhuan'') is one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin, and is attributed to Shi Nai'an. It is also translated as ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' and ''All Men Are Brothers''. The story, which is ...
'' (1975), a sequel to ''The Water Margin'' (1972) directed by Chang Cheh and others; ''Tiger Killer'' (1982), directed by
Li Han-hsiang Richard Li Han-hsiang (; 7 March 1926 in Huludao, Jinxi, Liaoning – 17 December 1996 in Beijing) was a Chinese film director. Li directed more than 70 films in his career beginning in the 1950s and lasting till the 1990s. His ''The Enchanting ...
and starring Ti Lung as Wu Song again. Other non-Shaw Brothers production include: '' All Men Are Brothers: Blood of the Leopard'', also known as ''Water Margin: True Colours of Heroes'' (1992), which centers on the story of Lin Chong,
Lu Zhishen Lu Zhishen is a fictional character in '' Water Margin'', one of the four great classical novels in Chinese literature. He is the main character in the first segment of the novel, which spans about six chapters. Nicknamed "Flowery Monk", he ra ...
and
Gao Qiu Gao Qiu (1076?–1126) was a government official who lived during the Song dynasty of China and served in the court of Emperor Huizong. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', he is fictionalised as one of the primary antagonists and a nemesis ...
, starring
Tony Leung Ka-fai Tony Leung Ka-fai (; born 1 February 1958) is a Hong Kong actor who is a four-time winner of the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actor. As he is often confused with actor Tony Leung Chiu-wai, Tony Leung Ka-fai is known as "Big Tony," while Tony Leu ...
,
Elvis Tsui Elvis Tsui Kam-kong (born October 12, 1961) is a Hong Kong actor and artist. Tsui is primarily known for his roles in erotic films and martial arts films, where he's more often cast as villains. Some of the famous characters he has portrayed repe ...
and others; ''
Troublesome Night 16 ''Troublesome Night 16'' is a 2002 Hong Kong horror comedy film produced by Nam Yin and directed by Yip Wai-ying. It is the 16th of the 20 films in the ''Troublesome Night'' film series. Plot Bud Gay and Bud Yan travel back in time to the Song ...
'' (2002), a Hong Kong horror comedy film which spoofs the story of Wu Song avenging his brother.


Television

Television series directly based on ''Water Margin'' include:
Nippon Television JOAX-DTV (channel 4), branded as , is the flagship station of the Nippon News Network and the Nippon Television Network System, owned-and-operated by the which is a subsidiary of the certified broadcasting holding company , itself a listed su ...
's ''
The Water Margin ''Water Margin'' (''Shuihu zhuan'') is one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin, and is attributed to Shi Nai'an. It is also translated as ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' and ''All Men Are Brothers''. The story, which is ...
'' (1973), which was filmed in mainland China and later released in other countries outside Japan; ''
Outlaws of the Marsh ''Water Margin'' (''Shuihu zhuan'') is one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin, and is attributed to Shi Nai'an. It is also translated as ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' and ''All Men Are Brothers''. The story, which is s ...
'' (1983), which won a Golden Eagle Award;
CCTV Closed-circuit television (CCTV), also known as video surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs from broadcast television in that the signal is not openly t ...
's ''
The Water Margin ''Water Margin'' (''Shuihu zhuan'') is one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin, and is attributed to Shi Nai'an. It is also translated as ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' and ''All Men Are Brothers''. The story, which is ...
'' (1998), produced by
Zhang Jizhong Zhang Jizhong (born May 23, 1951) is a Chinese nationality law, Chinese film producer, director, teacher, and writer. He is known as one of the more prominent television producers in China. His best known productions include the China Central Te ...
and featuring fight choreography by Yuen Woo-ping; ''
All Men Are Brothers ''Water Margin'' (''Shuihu zhuan'') is one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin, and is attributed to Shi Nai'an. It is also translated as ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' and ''All Men Are Brothers''. The story, which is ...
'' (2011), directed by Kuk Kwok-leung and featuring actors from mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Animations adapted from ''Water Margin'' include: '' Giant Robo: The Animation'' (1992), an anime series based on
Mitsuteru Yokoyama was a Japanese manga artist born in Suma Ward of Kobe City in Hyōgo Prefecture. His personal name was originally spelled , with the same pronunciation. His works include ''Tetsujin 28-go'', ''Giant Robo'', '' Akakage'', ''Babel II'', '' Sal ...
's manga series; ''
Outlaw Star is a Japanese anime Television show, television series produced by Sunrise (company), Sunrise and Seinen manga, ''seinen'' manga series written and illustrated by Takehiko Itō. The series takes place in the "Toward Stars Era" universe i ...
'' (1998), another cartoon series which makes several references to the novel; '' Hero: 108'' (2010), a flash animated series produced by various companies and shown on
Cartoon Network Cartoon Network (often abbreviated as CN) is an American cable television channel owned by Warner Bros. Discovery. It is a part of The Cartoon Network, Inc., a division that also has the broadcasting and production activities of Boomerang, Car ...
. ''Galaxy Divine Wind Jinraiger'', an anime in the
J9 Series The is a trilogy of Japanese Super Robot mecha anime television series. The anime were broadcast by TV Tokyo (TX Network) from 1981 to 1984, the 80's trilogy was produced and animated by Kokusai Eiga-sha , also known as Movie International Compa ...
planned for a 2016 broadcast, has also cited ''Water Margin'' as its inspiration. The 2004 Hong Kong television series ''
Shades of Truth ''Shades of Truth'' (Traditional Chinese: 水滸無間道; literally ''Water Margin's Unceasing Path'') is a 25-episode television comedy-drama from Hong Kong. Produced by Siu Hin-fai, the drama is a TVB production. The story is a parody on the ...
'', produced by
TVB Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB) is a television broadcasting company based in Hong Kong SAR. The Company operates five free-to-air terrestrial television channels in Hong Kong, with TVB Jade as its main Cantonese language service, and ...
, features three characters from the novel who are reincarnated into present-day Hong Kong as a triad boss and two police officers respectively.


Video games

Video games based on the novel include
Konami , is a Japanese Multinational corporation, multinational video game company, video game and entertainment company headquartered in Chūō, Tokyo, Chūō, Tokyo, it also produces and distributes trading cards, anime, tokusatsu, pachinko machin ...
's console RPG series ''
Suikoden is a series of role-playing video games created by Yoshitaka Murayama. The games are loosely based on the classical Chinese novel ''Water Margin'', whose title is rendered as in Japanese. Each individual game centers on themes of politics, co ...
'' and
Koei Koei Co., Ltd. was a Japanese video game publisher, developer, and distributor founded in 1978. The company is known for its ''Dynasty Warriors'' games based on the novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', as well as simulation games based on p ...
's strategy game ''
Bandit Kings of Ancient China ''Bandit Kings of Ancient China'', also known as in Japan, is a turn-based strategy video game developed and published by Koei, and released in 1989 for MSX, MS-DOS, Amiga, and Macintosh and in 1990 for the Nintendo Entertainment System. In 1996 ...
''. Other games with characters based on the novel or were partly inspired by it include: ''
Jade Empire ''Jade Empire'' is an action role-playing game developed by BioWare, originally published by Microsoft Game Studios in 2005 as an Xbox exclusive. It was later ported to Microsoft Windows personal computers (PC) and published by 2K Games in 2007. ...
'', which features a character "Black Whirlwind" who is based on Li Kui;
Data East , also abbreviated as DECO, was a Japanese video game, pinball and electronic engineering company. The company was in operation from 1976 to 2003, and released 150 video game titles. Its main headquarters were located in Suginami, Tokyo. The Am ...
's '' Outlaws Of The Lost Dynasty'', which was also released under the titles ''Suiko Enbu'' and ''Dark Legend''; '' Shin Megami Tensei: IMAGINE''. There is also a beat em' up game ''Shuǐhǔ Fēngyún Chuán'' (), created by Never Ending Soft Team and published by Kin Tec in 1996. It was re-released for the
Mega Drive The Sega Genesis, known as the outside North America, is a 16-bit fourth generation home video game console developed and sold by Sega. It was Sega's third console and the successor to the Master System. Sega released it in 1988 in Japan a ...
and in arcade version by Wah Lap in 1999. An English version titled "''Water Margin: The Tales of Clouds and Winds''" by
Piko Interactive Piko Interactive LLC is an American video game publisher based in San Antonio, Texas. Founded in early 2013 by Eli Galindo, the company focuses on physical re-releases of games from older video game consoles and digitally released ports to newer ...
translated and released in 2015. Some enemy sprites are taken from other beat 'em ups and modified, including '' Knights of the Round'', ''
Golden Axe is a series of side-scrolling beat 'em up arcade video games developed by Sega. The series takes place in a medieval fantasy world where several heroes have the task of recovering the legendary Golden Axe, the mainstay element of the series. M ...
'' and ''
Streets of Rage ''Streets of Rage'' is a series of side-scrolling beat 'em up video games, centering on the efforts of several ex-police vigilantes trying to rid a fictional, large American city from a crime syndicate that has corrupted its local government. ...
.''


Music

''Yan Poxi'', a
Pingju Pingju or Ping opera () is a form of Chinese opera from northern China. History Pingju originated in Tangshan, Hebei, near the city of Tianjin.. Among all China's regional operas, it was the most famous in the Republican period for its passiona ...
form of the story focused on the concubine
Yan Poxi Yan Poxi () is a fictional Song dynasty woman from the Chinese novel ''Water Margin''. She is usually called Yan Xijiao (), a Hua Dan, in Chinese opera. Originally from the national capital Kaifeng, Yan Poxi is a beautiful young girl who cam ...
, was performed by
Bai Yushuang Li Guizhen pinyin, p ''Lǐ Guìzhēn''; 1907–1942), better known by her stage name Bai Yushuang ''Yùshuāng'', Jade Frost"), was a Chinese people, Chinese Pingju, Ping Opera Chinese opera, singer and Cinema of China, actress. She was one ...
and her company in
Shanghai Shanghai (; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the Huangpu River flow ...
in the 1930s. ''Water Marginised'' (水滸後傳) (2007) is a folk
reggae Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, " Do the Reggay" was the first popular song to use ...
narrative by Chan Xuan. It tells the story of a present-day jailbird who travels to Liangshan Marsh in hope of joining the outlaw band, only to find that
Song Jiang A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition ...
and his men have all taken bureaucratic jobs in the ruling party. "108 Heroes" is a three-part Peking Rock Opera (first shown in 2007, 2011 and 2014 respectively) formed through a collaborative effort between the Hong Kong Arts Festival, the Shanghai International Arts Festival, Taiwan Contemporary Legend Theater, and the Shanghai Theater Academy. The show combines traditional Peking Opera singing, costumes, martial arts and dance with elements of modern music, costume and dance.


Other

Characters from the story often appear on Money-suited playing cards, which are thought to be the ancestor of both modern playing cards and mahjong tiles. These cards are also known as Water Margin cards (水滸牌). The trading card game, Yu-Gi-Oh! has an
archetype The concept of an archetype (; ) appears in areas relating to behavior, historical psychology, and literary analysis. An archetype can be any of the following: # a statement, pattern of behavior, prototype, "first" form, or a main model that ot ...
based on the 108 heroes known as the "Fire Fist" (known as "Flame Star" in the OCG) (炎えん星せい, Ensei) where the monsters aside from Horse Prince, Lion Emperor, and Spirit are based on those heroes. The Jurchen chief and Khan
Nurhaci Nurhaci (14 May 1559 – 30 September 1626), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Qing (), was a Jurchen chieftain who rose to prominence in the late 16th century in Manchuria. A member of the House of Aisin-Gioro, he reigned ...
read the Chinese novels ''
Romance of the Three Kingdoms ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 184 AD and ...
'' and ''Water Margin'' learning all he knew about Chinese military and political strategies from them.


Notes


References


Further reading

* John Dent-Young, "Translating Chinese Fiction: The Shui Hu Zhuan," in Sin-Wai Chan and David Pollard, ''An Encyclopedia of Translation: Chinese-English, English-Chinese'' (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1995), 249–261

* *
C. T. Hsia Hsia Chih-tsing 夏志清 or C. T. Hsia (January 11, 1921 – December 29, 2013) was a Chinese historian and literary theorist. He contributed to the introduction of modern Chinese literature to the Western world by promoting the works of once m ...
, "The Water Margin," in C.T. Hsia, ''The Classic Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction'' (1968; rpr. Cornell University Press, 1996), pp. 75–114. * * Chin Shen T'an (Jin Shengtan),
Preface to 'Sui Hu'
" (translated by "T.K.C.") ''The China Critic'' (7 March 1935): 234–235. reprinted at ''
China Heritage Quarterly China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
'' * * * * * Wai-Yee Li. ''Full-Length Vernacular Fiction.'' in Victor Mair, (ed.), ''The Columbia History of Chinese Literature'' (NY: Columbia University Press, 2001), esp. pp. 626–332.


External links


''Outlaws of the Marsh'': A Somewhat Less Than Critical Commentary
Chinese text with embedded Chinese-English dictionary *Yoko Miyamoto
Water Margin: Chinese Robin Hood and His Bandits
(2011)




Stylized illustrations of the 108 heroes
* {{Authority control Chinese novels adapted into films 14th-century Chinese novels Chinese novels adapted into television series Ming dynasty novels Novels adapted into comics Novels adapted into video games Novels set in the Northern Song Novels set in Hebei Novels set in Kaifeng Novels set in Jiangxi Novels set in Zhejiang Novels set in Shanxi Novels set in Shaanxi Novels set in Gansu Novels about rebels Novels set in the 12th century