''The Surrounded'',
D’Arcy McNickle's first book, was first published in 1936 by
Harcourt, Brace and Company
Harcourt () was an American publishing firm with a long history of publishing fiction and nonfiction for adults and children. The company was last based in San Diego, California, with editorial/sales/marketing/rights offices in New York City an ...
then republished in 1964 and again in 1978 by the
University of New Mexico Press
The University of New Mexico Press (UNMP) is a university press at the University of New Mexico. It was founded in 1929 and published pamphlets for the university in its early years before expanding into quarterlies and books. Its administrative ...
. McNickle was a
Cree
The Cree ( cr, néhinaw, script=Latn, , etc.; french: link=no, Cri) are a Indigenous peoples of the Americas, North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations in Canada ...
Métis
The Métis ( ; Canadian ) are Indigenous peoples who inhabit Canada's three Prairie Provinces, as well as parts of British Columbia, the Northwest Territories, and the Northern United States. They have a shared history and culture which derives ...
author enrolled as
Salish-Kootenai on the
Flathead Indian Reservation
The Flathead Indian Reservation, located in western Montana on the Flathead River, is home to the Bitterroot Salish, Kootenai, and Pend d'Oreilles tribes – also known as the
Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation. The ...
.
''The Surrounded'' takes place in the Sniél-emen Valley,
which translates to “Mountains of the surrounded,” on the Flathead Reservation in
Montana
Montana () is a state in the Mountain West division of the Western United States. It is bordered by Idaho to the west, North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columbi ...
at the ranch of Max Leon, Archilde's father.
The story begins with Archilde Leon, who is half Salish and half
Spaniard
Spaniards, or Spanish people, are a Romance ethnic group native to Spain. Within Spain, there are a number of national and regional ethnic identities that reflect the country's complex history, including a number of different languages, both ind ...
, returning from
Portland
Portland most commonly refers to:
* Portland, Oregon, the largest city in the state of Oregon, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States
* Portland, Maine, the largest city in the state of Maine, in the New England region of the northeas ...
where he worked in white society. Upon his return he feels separated from his homeland and culture.
The story follows Archilde's internal struggle between
Euro-American
European Americans (also referred to as Euro-Americans) are Americans of European ancestry. This term includes people who are descended from the first European settlers in the United States as well as people who are descended from more recent Eu ...
and
American Indian culture, as he attempts to reconcile with his father and find his place in a community while he deals with the death of his brother and his mother's murder of a game warden. Struggling to reintegrate himself into Salish culture, repair his family bonds, and escape criminal charges, Archilde finds himself trapped in the crossfire as outside forces attempt to decimate his tribe's way of life.
''The Surrounded'' received praise for its ingenuity, and reviewer
Louis Owens
Louis Dean Owens (Lompoc July 18, 1948 - Albuquerque, July 25, 2002) was a novelist and scholar who claimed Choctaw, Cherokee, and Irish-American descent. He is known for a series of Native-themed mystery novels and for his contributions to the ...
believes this novel led to an
Indigenous
Indigenous may refer to:
*Indigenous peoples
*Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention
*Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band
*Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...
literary movement more notable than the
Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance was an intellectual and cultural revival of African American music, dance, art, fashion, literature, theater, politics and scholarship centered in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City, spanning the 1920s and 1930s. At the t ...
.
In “You Can't Run Away Nowadays: Redefining Modernity in D'Arcy McNickle's ''The Surrounded,''” Alicia Kent states that ''The Surrounded'' resembles a
“coming of age” story as Archilde attempts to find his path and place in life, but the story also mixes in
modernist
Modernism is both a philosophical and arts movement that arose from broad transformations in Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new forms of art, philosophy, an ...
style—highlighting themes concerning disillusionment, despair, displacement, and liminal spaces.
Reviews by
Olive La Farge, J. MacMurrough, and Louis Owens all comment on how McNickle's ability to detect and clearly depict the struggle to coexist in seemingly opposing worlds sets the standard for Indigenous literature.
Background
''The Surrounded'' is the first novel written by
Cree
The Cree ( cr, néhinaw, script=Latn, , etc.; french: link=no, Cri) are a Indigenous peoples of the Americas, North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations in Canada ...
Métis
The Métis ( ; Canadian ) are Indigenous peoples who inhabit Canada's three Prairie Provinces, as well as parts of British Columbia, the Northwest Territories, and the Northern United States. They have a shared history and culture which derives ...
author D’Arcy McNickle. The book was originally published in 1936 by Harcourt, Brace & Company, and republished by the University of New Mexico Press in 1978 as a part of the Zia Series. The second publication includes an
afterword
An afterword is a literary device that is often found at the end of a piece of literature. It generally covers the story of how the book came into being, or of how the idea for the book was developed.
An afterword may be written by someone other ...
written by literary collector and scholar Lawrence W. Towner. While little is known about the specifics of McNickle's early life, it is widely accepted that ''The Surrounded'' is influenced by the author's own experiences as a person of both Cree and
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
an descent.
[McNickle, D’Arcy. ''The Surrounded''. New Mexico UP, 1978. ] Like the main character of ''The Surrounded,'' McNickle spent much of his childhood on the Flathead Reservation until he was taken to the
Chemawa Indian School
Chemawa Indian School is a Native American boarding school in Salem, Oregon, United States. Named after the Chemawa band of the Kalapuya people of the Willamette Valley, it opened on February 25, 1880 as an elementary school. Grades were add ...
in Salem, Oregon. After graduating he attended the
University of Montana
The University of Montana (UM) is a public research university in Missoula, Montana. UM is a flagship institution of the Montana University System and its second largest campus. UM reported 10,962 undergraduate and graduate students in the fal ...
and went on to work for the
Bureau of Indian Affairs
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), also known as Indian Affairs (IA), is a United States federal agency within the Department of the Interior. It is responsible for implementing federal laws and policies related to American Indians and A ...
. It was during this time that McNickle wrote ''The Surrounded''.
''The Surrounded'' takes place on the
Flathead Reservation
The Flathead Indian Reservation, located in western Montana on the Flathead River, is home to the Bitterroot Salish, Kootenai, and Pend d'Oreilles tribes – also known as the
Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation. The ...
. While little economic data about the reservation is available from the time the novel was written, impacts of the
Great Depression
The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
appear throughout ''The Surrounded''. The novel explores issues of race and identity in the Salish tribe. McNickle refers to a common practice where white men married Native women in order to claim the land allotted to them under the controversial
Dawes Act
The Dawes Act of 1887 (also known as the General Allotment Act or the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887) regulated land rights on tribal territories within the United States. Named after Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts, it authorized the Pre ...
.
This political commentary paired with positive reception for both editions has earned ''The Surrounded'' prestige in the canon of Native American Literature.
Characters
Archilde Leon
Archilde Leon (ahr-SHEEL lay-OHN) is the son of Max Leon, a Spaniard, and Catherine LaLoup Leon, a
Salish
Salish () may refer to:
* Salish peoples, a group of First Nations/Native Americans
** Coast Salish peoples, several First Nations/Native American groups in the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest
** Interior Salish peoples, several First Nat ...
woman. Having previously worked in Portland as a fiddler, Archilde returns to his home on the Flathead Reservation to visit his mother. Archilde struggles to embrace his Salish roots and make amends with his father, who expected him to take over the family ranch. Archilde finds it hard to leave the reservation once he begins to accept his family and the Salish tribe amidst the murder of his brother Louis and the game warden.
Catherine LaLoup Leon
Catherine is the daughter of a Salish chief, married to Max Leon, and the mother of Archilde, Louis, and Agnes—she has given birth to eleven children in all. Catherine converted to Christianity with her father and was known as “Faithful Catherine” by the Fathers of their church. Catherine begins to struggle with her faith after the murders of her child Louis and the game warden. Catherine renounces her baptism and then fully embraces her traditional beliefs before dying.
Max Leon
Max Leon is a Spaniard and moved to the Flathead Reservation once he married Catherine. He is the father of Archilde Leon, but their relationship has fractured since Archilde moved away to Portland rather than working on the ranch. Max isolates himself from Salish people and his family and often visits Father Grepilloux to unburden himself and seek advice. Archilde and Max's relationship begins to heal as his son accepts more responsibility on the ranch. On his death bed, Max wishes he were more understanding and accepting of his family and the Salish people, which allows him to finally receive forgiveness from Catherine and Archilde.
Mike
![Montana Indian Reservations](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Montana_Indian_Reservations.svg)
![Flathead01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Flathead01.png)
Mike is Archilde's nephew and Agnes's son. He is a braggadocios boy who enjoys living on the reservation with his family. When Mike is taken to the Mission boarding school, he suffers several traumatic experiences that ultimately change his personality and cause him to endure nightmares, bed-wetting, and irrational fears. Mike ultimately escapes with his brother, Narcisse, in the mountains to avoid getting sent back to the Mission school.
Narcisse
Narcisse (nahr-sees) is Archilde's nephew and Agnes's son. He and his brother Mike are extremely close. Narcisse becomes concerned when Mike begins to act differently when they return from the Mission school. They eventually escape into the mountains with Archilde and Elise to avoid going back to the Mission school.
Elise La Rose
Elise is the daughter of Octave La Rose and Modeste's granddaughter. She has a reputation for recklessness in the town, but Archilde and Elise form a close bond and begin to have feelings for one another. Elise helps Archilde, Mike, and Narcisse to escape into the mountains to avoid the authorities, but she winds up having to kill Sheriff Quigley when he discovers their camp. Elise and Archilde are captured by Mr. Parker and a Salish Police officer at the end of the novel.
Modeste
Modeste is a well-respected elder in the Salish tribe and a chief. Modeste and Catherine have a strong friendship, and he offers his help and knowledge to the rest of his tribe—he helps Mike overcome his trauma, fulfills Catherine's wish to return to their tribal traditions, and tells Archilde their tribal histories and stories to give him a better understanding of his cultural heritage.
Dave Quigley
Dave Quigley is an infamous Sheriff among the Salish people because of his reputation for incriminating and killing Indigenous people. Sheriff Quigley suspects Archilde after the game warden's disappearance and continues to be a menacing force throughout the book.
Mr. Parker
Mr. Parker is the Indian Commissioner at the Indian Government Agency. Parker attempts to help Archilde when he is under suspicion for the disappearance of the game warden. He ultimately winds up hunting Archilde down in the mountains and placing him under arrest when he does not return to the agency after his mother's death.
Louis Leon
Louis Leon is Archilde's brother and tends to be impetuous. Louis steals horses from nearby ranches and takes refuge in the mountains. Louis is killed by a game warden when the warden discovers the family hunting and shoots Louis as he reaches for his rifle.
Father Grepilloux
Father Grepilloux is a priest at the St. Xavier Mission in the Sniél-emen Valley. He is Max Leon's closest companion and confidant and helps him repair his relationship with his son, Archilde. Father Grepilloux has been writing a book about the missionaries' arrival in the valley and his impressions of the Salish people.
Agnes Leon
Agnes Leon is Archilde's sister and the mother of Narcisse and Mike. She lives with Max in his house and encourages Archilde to remain on the reservation to help their father with the ranch.
Plot
![Building at Salish Kootenai College and Mission Mountains 20130723](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Building_at_Salish_Kootenai_College_and_Mission_Mountains_20130723.JPG)
Archilde Leon returns from
Portland
Portland most commonly refers to:
* Portland, Oregon, the largest city in the state of Oregon, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States
* Portland, Maine, the largest city in the state of Maine, in the New England region of the northeas ...
, where he made a living by playing fiddle in a show house, to his father's ranch in
Montana
Montana () is a state in the Mountain West division of the Western United States. It is bordered by Idaho to the west, North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columbi ...
on the
Flathead Reservation
The Flathead Indian Reservation, located in western Montana on the Flathead River, is home to the Bitterroot Salish, Kootenai, and Pend d'Oreilles tribes – also known as the
Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation. The ...
in the Sniél-emen Valley. Archilde visits with his mother, Catherine—a
Salish
Salish () may refer to:
* Salish peoples, a group of First Nations/Native Americans
** Coast Salish peoples, several First Nations/Native American groups in the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest
** Interior Salish peoples, several First Nat ...
woman, and she plans to host a feast for Archilde's return to the reservation. Archilde discovers that his brother Louis stole horses and took refuge in the
Salish mountains
The Salish Mountains are located in the northwest corner of the U.S. State of Montana. Much of the range is bordered on the east by Flathead Lake. With peaks ranging from just under 7,000 feet tall to named hills that are a little short of 3,600 ...
. Archilde dreads seeing his father, Max Leon—a
Spaniard
Spaniards, or Spanish people, are a Romance ethnic group native to Spain. Within Spain, there are a number of national and regional ethnic identities that reflect the country's complex history, including a number of different languages, both ind ...
, because their relationship has become strained since Archilde left for Portland. Archilde begins to regret his decision to visit his family.
Archilde runs into his brother Louis at the creek on his family's property. He warns him about Pariseau, a rancher, searching for him and tells him that the infamous Sheriff Dave Quigley may eventually get involved in the manhunt.
Max and Father Grepilloux discuss Archilde's return and future on the reservation, and Father Grepilloux suggests that Archilde take violin lessons at the mission to extend his stay on Max's ranch. Later, Archilde attends a feast where the elders share traditional Salish stories that alter Achilde's perspective about his culture, and he begins to embrace his community and family. Max remains in his house during the feast pondering his isolation and lack of connection from the Salish people and his family. Afterwards, Max tricks his grandsons Mike and Narcisse into attending the Mission boarding school under the guise of a joyride in his car.
Catherine and Archilde go hunting in the mountains and find Sheriff Quigley searching for a horse thief—Louis. Catherine and Archilde run into Louis, and they set up camp together to go hunting the following day. After Louis brings back a deer he shot, a game warden approaches their camp and tells them they are in violation of hunting laws. As the warden attempts to put them under arrest, Louis reaches for his gun and the game warden shoots and kills him. Catherine then plunges an ax into the game warden's head and kills him. Catherine and Archilde bury the game warden's body and head back down the mountains with Louis's body. When they arrive at the ranch, Archilde and Catherine lie to everyone by saying that they found Louis dead in the mountains to avoid suspicion or revealing the game warden's murder.
After Louis's death, the Government Indian Agency takes Archilde into custody to investigate his brother's murder and the disappearance of the game warden. Mr. Parker from the Government Indian Agency believes Archilde is being honest with him and promises to help him throughout the investigation. Sheriff Quigley remains skeptical of Archilde's story and believes he is involved with the game warden's disappearance. During this time, Father Grepilloux dies and Max falls ill. When Archilde is released, he rushes to his father's side. In Max's dying moments, he realizes the errors of his ways and wishes he were more open and forgiving with his family, specifically with Catherine.
After the death of Louis and Max Leon, Catherine becomes further removed from the Christian faith, and it no longer provides her with comfort. She holds a tribal meeting where she asks to be whipped—a traditional form of penance— as punishment for her crimes: murdering the game warden and the death her son, Louis. Catherine shares her dream of the white people's heaven and the Salish people's heaven. She describes not being able to enter Salish heaven until she revoked her baptism. Modeste and the tribe agree to use the whip on Catherine for her crimes as she completely denounces her previously devout faith in Christianity.
When Catherine falls ill, Archilde calls for Father Jerome to give the
last rites
The last rites, also known as the Commendation of the Dying, are the last prayers and ministrations given to an individual of Christian faith, when possible, shortly before death. They may be administered to those awaiting execution, mortall ...
. Father Jerome reveals that he knows the truth about Catherine murdering the game warden and pushes Archilde to report his mother's crimes to the authorities. Archilde reveals his secret to Mr. Parker, and he allows Archilde to remain with his mother until she passes away at which point he must return to the agency to fight any charges that may be brought against him.
After Catherine dies, Archilde and Elise flee into the mountains with Narcisse and Mike to avoid the authorities and sending the boys back to the Mission school. After three days, Mr. Parker sends Sheriff Quigley to find the runaways and bring Archilde to justice. In the middle of the night, Sheriff Quigley discovers their camp in the mountains, but Elise shoots Sheriff Quigley and kills him. Just as Elise and Archilde think they are free, Mr. Parker and a Salish police officer emerge from the brush and place them under arrest. Narcisse and Mike escape from the authorities, but Archilde and Elise are detained.
Genre and analysis
In Alicia Kent's article "You Can't Run Away Nowadays: Redefining Modernity in D'Arcy McNickle's ''The Surrounded,''" she describes ''The Surrounded'' as
coming-of-age
Coming of age is a young person's transition from being a child to being an adult. The specific age at which this transition takes place varies between societies, as does the nature of the change. It can be a simple legal convention or can ...
novel that illustrates the struggle to maintain Indigenous sovereignty and traditions in a rapidly
modernizing world. Kent draws parallels between McNickle's experiences with federally supported
assimilatory legislation and the novel's depiction of the Salish people's attempt to preserve their culture and way of life.
According to Carole Goldberg's "A Native Vision of Justice," ''The Surrounded'' plays a significant role in American and Indigenous fiction because the novel captures the flaws in federal legislation meant to protect Indigenous communities. Goldberg states that McNickle confronted the shortcomings in federal policy through political action and his literature. Her article suggests that ''The Surrounded'' provided McNickle with a platform to highlight the injustice Indigenous people endured at the hands of insufficient federal legislation.
Laird Christensen's “Not Exactly Like Heaven: Theological Imperialism in ''The Surrounded'',” suggests that McNickle's novel illustrates the ideological flaws in attempting to intervene with or "improve" the
Salish
Salish () may refer to:
* Salish peoples, a group of First Nations/Native Americans
** Coast Salish peoples, several First Nations/Native American groups in the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest
** Interior Salish peoples, several First Nat ...
culture and way of life. Christensen argues that
Christianization
Christianization ( or Christianisation) is to make Christian; to imbue with Christian principles; to become Christian. It can apply to the conversion of an individual, a practice, a place or a whole society. It began in the Roman Empire, conti ...
methods depicted in the novel parallel the threat of erasure for
Indigenous
Indigenous may refer to:
*Indigenous peoples
*Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention
*Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band
*Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...
people's culture and survival.
In “The Red Road to Nowhere: D'Arcy McNickle's ''The Surrounded'' and ''The Hungry Generations'',” Louis Owens concludes that McNickle's dual heritage influenced ''The Surrounded'' because Archilde faces a similar dilemma by attempting to bridge his
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
an and Indigenous ancestry. Owens surmises that ''The Surrounded'' illustrates that connecting two worlds poses an incredible challenge because opposing cultural values and core beliefs tend to clash rather than coexist.
Robert Dale Parker's article “Who Shot the Sheriff” uses an
Indigenous feminist perspective to decipher ''The Surrounded''. He critiques Archilde's character for his inability to make decisions in desperate situations leaving Catherine, his mother, and Elise to fight against the encroaching white community and corrupt government officials. Through Parker's analysis, he suggests that Indigenous men— animated through Archilde's character—must redefine their masculinity and begin to actively resist injustice with indigenous women—represented by Catherine and Elise.
In “D’Arcy McNickle’s Reservation Modernism,” Leif Sorenson's interpretation of ''The Surrounded'' illustrates that the novel's major themes highlight the generational trauma indigenous people endured at the hands of colonialism. Sorenson argues that the novel's trajectory evokes themes of cultural erasure as
colonial
Colonial or The Colonial may refer to:
* Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology)
Architecture
* American colonial architecture
* French Colonial
* Spanish Colonial architecture
Automobiles
* Colonial (1920 au ...
forces decimate tribal resistance to uphold
Eurocentric
Eurocentrism (also Eurocentricity or Western-centrism)
is a worldview that is centered on Western civilization or a biased view that favors it over non-Western civilizations. The exact scope of Eurocentrism varies from the entire Western world ...
ideology. Ultimately, Sorenson concludes that ''The Surrounded'' portrays the reality of colonialism's negative impact on Indigenous peoples' lives and cultural survival.
Publication and reception
D’Arcy McNickle
William D'Arcy McNickle (January 14, 1904 – October 10, 1977) (Salish Kootenai) was a writer, Native American activist, college professor and administrator, and anthropologist. Of Irish and Cree-Métis descent, he later enrolled in the Salish ...
’s – then-named D’Arcy Dahlberg – first attempt at publication of ''The Surrounded'', formerly titled “The Hungry Generations”, was denied by
Harcourt, Brace, and Company in 1929. While under his former name, Dahlberg, the publishing company misjudged his name and addressed McNickle as Miss Dahlberg. The novel was accepted and published by Harcourt in 1936. ''The Surrounded'' went on to spark the creation of a revamped Native American literature.
''The Surrounded'' received strong reviews from the literary critics of its time. Upon release in 1936, American writer
Oliver La Farge
Oliver Hazard Perry La Farge II (December 19, 1901 – August 2, 1963) was an American writer and anthropologist. In 1925 he explored early Olmec sites in Mexico, and later studied additional sites in Central America and the American Southw ...
wrote a review for the novel titled "Half-Breed Hero" in
''The Saturday Review'' and rated it as an easy read with a clear, concise structure. La Farge found it especially interesting that the story centered around a character with dual heritage given that McNickle came from a similar background. Moreover, he concluded his review by praising McNickle for explaining the social and mental conflict of having a dual heritage while trying to live by European standards without overwhelming the reader. Similarly, reviewer J. MacMurrough published his assessment in the
''New Masses'' titled “From the Inside," and he credited McNickle for delving into the history of the
Salish
Salish () may refer to:
* Salish peoples, a group of First Nations/Native Americans
** Coast Salish peoples, several First Nations/Native American groups in the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest
** Interior Salish peoples, several First Nat ...
people by including that the
Jesuit, Society of Jesus, and the government were meant to help the Salish people but instead these institutions caused more problems. MacMurrough praised McNickle for clearly highlighting a different struggle through each character and noted that he enjoyed the fact that Catherine returns to her Native practices.
[MacMurrough, J. “From the Inside.” ''New Masses'', 3 Mar. 1936.] MacMurrough concluded his review with the notion that ''The Surrounded'' is a timeless novel that could never be replicated.
References
Further reading
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Surrounded
Native American novels
1936 American novels
University of New Mexico Press books
Harcourt (publisher) books
Novels set in Montana