''The Art of Being Right: 38 Ways to Win an Argument'' (also ''The Art of Controversy'', or ''Eristic Dialectic: The Art of Winning an Argument''; German: ''Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten''; 1831) is an acidulous, sarcastic treatise written by the German philosopher
Arthur Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer ( , ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is best known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the phenomenal world as the prod ...
. In it, Schopenhauer examines a total of thirty-eight methods of defeating one's opponent in a debate. He introduces his essay with the idea that philosophers have concentrated in ample measure on the rules of
logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from premises ...
, but have not (especially since the time of
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (, , ; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and ...
) engaged with the darker art of the
dialectic
Dialectic ( grc-gre, διαλεκτική, ''dialektikḗ''; related to dialogue; german: Dialektik), also known as the dialectical method, is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing ...
, of controversy. Whereas the purpose of logic is classically said to be a method of arriving at the truth, dialectic, says Schopenhauer, "...on the other hand, would treat of the intercourse between two rational beings who, because they are rational, ought to think in common, but who, as soon as they cease to agree like two clocks keeping exactly the same time, create a disputation, or intellectual contest."
Publication
![Schopenhauers basis of dialectic](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Schopenhauers_basis_of_dialectic.svg)
In Volume 2, § 26, of his ''
Parerga and Paralipomena
''Parerga and Paralipomena'' (Greek for "Appendices" and "Omissions", respectively; german: Parerga und Paralipomena) is a collection of philosophical reflections by Arthur Schopenhauer published in 1851. The selection was compiled not as a summa ...
'', Schopenhauer wrote:
The tricks, dodges, and chicanery, to which they enresort in order to be right in the end, are so numerous and manifold and yet recur so regularly that some years ago I made them the subject of my own reflection and directed my attention to their purely formal element after I had perceived that, however varied the subjects of discussion and the persons taking part therein, the same identical tricks and dodges always come back and were very easy to recognize. This led me at the time to the idea of clearly separating the merely formal part of these tricks and dodges from the material and of displaying it, so to speak, as a neat anatomical specimen.
He "collected all the dishonest tricks so frequently occurring in argument and clearly presented each of them in its characteristic setting, illustrated by examples and given a name of its own." As an additional service, Schopenhauer "added a means to be used against them, as a kind of guard against these thrusts…."
However, when he later revised his book, he found "that such a detailed and minute consideration of the crooked ways and tricks that are used by common
human nature
Human nature is a concept that denotes the fundamental dispositions and characteristics—including ways of thinking, feeling, and acting—that humans are said to have naturally. The term is often used to denote the essence of humankind, or ...
to cover up its shortcomings is no longer suited to my temperament and so I lay it aside." He then recorded a few stratagems as specimens for anyone in the future who might care to write a similar essay. He also included, in ''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume 2, § 26, an outline of what is essential to every disputation.
The ''Manuscript Remains'' left after Schopenhauer's death include a forty–six page section on "
Eristic
In philosophy and rhetoric, eristic (from '' Eris'', the ancient Greek goddess of chaos, strife, and discord) refers to an argument that aims to successfully dispute another's argument, rather than searching for truth. According to T.H. Irwin, "It ...
Dialectics". It contains thirty–eight stratagems and many footnotes. There is a preliminary discussion about the distinction between logic and dialectics. E. F. J. Payne has translated these notes into English.
A. C. Grayling edited T. Bailey Saunders' English translation in 2004.
[''The Art of Always Being Right: Thirty Eight Ways to Win When You Are Defeated'', (2004), Gibson Square Books, ]
Synopsis
The following lists the 38
stratagems described by Schopenhauer, in the order of their appearance in the book:
# The Extension (Dana's Law)
# The
Homonymy
In linguistics, homonyms are words which are homographs (words that share the same spelling, regardless of pronunciation), or homophones (equivocal words, that share the same pronunciation, regardless of spelling), or both. Using this definition, ...
# Generalize Your Opponent's Specific Statements
# Conceal Your Game
#
False Propositions
# Postulate What Has to Be Proved
# Yield Admissions Through Questions
# Make Your Opponent Angry
# Questions in Detouring Order
# Take Advantage of the Nay-Sayer
# Generalize Admissions of Specific Cases
# Choose Metaphors Favourable to Your Proposition
# Agree to Reject the Counter-Proposition
# Claim Victory Despite Defeat
# Use Seemingly Absurd Propositions
#
Arguments Ad Hominem
# Defense Through Subtle Distinction
# Interrupt, Break, Divert the Dispute
# Generalize the Matter, Then Argue Against it
# Draw Conclusions Yourself
# Meet Him With a Counter-Argument as Bad as His
#
Petitio principii
In classical rhetoric and logic, begging the question or assuming the conclusion (Latin: ') is an informal fallacy that occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it.
For example:
* "Green is ...
# Make Him Exaggerate His Statement
# State a False
Syllogism
A syllogism ( grc-gre, συλλογισμός, ''syllogismos'', 'conclusion, inference') is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true.
...
# Find One Instance to the Contrary
# Turn the Tables
# Anger Indicates a Weak Point
# Persuade the Audience, Not the Opponent
# Diversion
#
Appeal to Authority
An argument from authority (''argumentum ab auctoritate''), also called an appeal to authority, or argumentum ad verecundiam, is a form of argument in which the opinion of an authority on a topic is used as evidence to support an argument. Some con ...
Rather Than Reason
# This Is Beyond Me
# Put His Thesis into Some Odious Category
# It Applies in Theory, but Not in Practice
# Don't Let Him Off the Hook
# Will Is More Effective Than Insight
# Bewilder Your opponent by Mere Bombast
# A Faulty Proof Refutes His Whole Position
# Become Personal, Insulting, Rude (''
argumentum ad personam
''Ad hominem'' (), short for ''argumentum ad hominem'' (), refers to several types of arguments, most of which are fallacious.
Typically, this term refers to a rhetorical strategy where the speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other ...
'')
See also
*
Big Lie
A big lie (german: große Lüge) is a gross distortion or misrepresentation of the truth, used especially as a propaganda technique. The German expression was coined by Adolf Hitler, when he dictated his book '' Mein Kampf'' (1925), to descri ...
*
Informal logic
Informal logic encompasses the principles of logic and logical thought outside of a formal setting (characterized by the usage of particular statements). However, the precise definition of "informal logic" is a matter of some dispute. Ralph H. ...
*
Logical fallacies In philosophy, a formal fallacy, deductive fallacy, logical fallacy or non sequitur (; Latin for " tdoes not follow") is a pattern of reasoning rendered invalid by a flaw in its logical structure that can neatly be expressed in a standard logic syst ...
*
Philosophical logic
Understood in a narrow sense, philosophical logic is the area of logic that studies the application of logical methods to philosophical problems, often in the form of extended logical systems like modal logic. Some theorists conceive philosophical ...
*
Reasoning
Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, lang ...
Notes
References
*
Grayling, A. C. (2004) ''The Art of Always Being Right: Thirty Eight Ways to Win When You Are Defeated''
* ''Parerga und Paralipomena'', 1851; English Translation by E. F. J. Payne, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974, Vol 2,
* Arthur Schopenhauer, ''Manuscript Remains'', Volume III, English Translation by E. F. J. Payne, Berg Publishers Ltd.,
External links
Online versionfrom Coolhaus.de, translated by T. Bailey Saunders in 1896. It shows the English translation parallel to the German text.
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Art of Being Right
Works by Arthur Schopenhauer