The Thal desert ( Urdu,

Punjabi Punjabi, or Panjabi, most often refers to: * Something of, from, or related to Punjab, a region in India and Pakistan * Punjabi language * Punjabi people * Punjabi dialects and languages Punjabi may also refer to: * Punjabi (horse), a British Th ...

: ) is situated at 31°10’ N and 71°30’ E in the province of Punjab, Pakistan. Located near the Pothohar Plateau, the area falls under the Indomalayan biogeographic realm and stretches for a length of approximately 190 miles (306 km) with a maximum breadth of 70 miles (113 km). It is bound by the piedmont of the northern Salt Range, the

Indus River The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, ...

flood plains in the west and the

Jhelum Jhelum ( Punjabi and ur, ) is a city on the east bank of the Jhelum River, which is located in the district of Jhelum in the north of Punjab province, Pakistan. It is the 44th largest city of Pakistan by population. Jhelum is known for p ...

and Chenab River floodplains in the east. It is a

subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Geographical z ...

sandy desert that resembles the deserts of Cholistan and Thar geographically. The region is characterized by

sand dunes A dune is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand. It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill. An area with dunes is called a dune system or a dune complex. A large dune complex is called a dune field, while broad, fl ...

, prone to massive shifting and rolling, as well as scanty rainfall, high diurnal variation of temperature and high wind velocity. Aridity is a common feature and perennial grasses make up much of the vegetation. Agriculture and livestock rearing form the main sources of livelihood for the population, who live in small scattered settlements throughout the desert. Thal Dessert Landscape

Geography

The Thal desert of Pakistan lies at altitudes above sea levels of approximately 200m in the north which gradually decrease to around 120m in the south. It falls under the agro-ecological zone-III and is a sandy, arid to semi-arid region. The desert is divided into the districts of Bhakkar,

Khushab Khushab ( punjabi: خُوشاب) is a town as well as a district of Sargodha Division, located in the Punjab province of Pakistan. The word ''Khushab'' means "sweet water." Khushab city also serves as the headquarters of Khushab Tehsil, an admini ...

, Mianwali, Jhang, Layyah and Muzzafargarh, all of whom which display very similar geographical features. The main towns of the region, which see the greatest human activity, include Roda Thal, Mankera, Hayderabad Thal,

Dullewala Dullewala ( ur, ) is a town in the Bhakkar District in Punjab, Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependenci ...

Piplan Piplan ( Punjabi, ur, ), is a small city in Piplan Tehsil in Mianwali District, situated in Punjab, Pakistan.Chowk Azam, Saraye Muhajir, Mehmood Shaheed Thal, Rang Pur, Jandan Wala, Mari Shah Sakhira,

Noor Pur Noor or Nour may refer to: People *Noor (name) *Queen Noor of Jordan Fiction * ''Noor'' (film), a 2017 Bollywood film * ''Noor'' (play), a 2009 play by Akbar Ahmed *''Noor'', a 2020 Pakistani television series with Usama Khan * ''Noor'' (novel), ...

Thal, and Muzafar Garh. The desert largely consists of ridges of sand dunes and rolling sand plains which alternate with narrow valleys of flatter, more

cultivable Agricultural land is typically land ''devoted to'' agriculture, the systematic and controlled use of other forms of lifeparticularly the rearing of livestock and production of cropsto produce food for humans. It is generally synonymous with bot ...

land. These sand dunes are a prominent feature of the zone and consist of sediment reworked by wind and brought in by the Indus River, which lays upstream of the orogenic front. They commonly reach heights of around 175m and cover 50-60% of the Thal desert. The area is also underlain by

Quaternary The Quaternary ( ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.58 million years ...

fluvial In geography and geology, fluvial processes are associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. When the stream or rivers are associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps, the term glaciofluvial or fluviog ...

and eolian deposits over 350m thick in southern areas, and even thicker in the central region of the desert. This underlying alluvium consists largely of laterally continuous bodies of fine to coarse sand, with minor

gravel Gravel is a loose aggregation of rock fragments. Gravel occurs naturally throughout the world as a result of sedimentary and erosive geologic processes; it is also produced in large quantities commercially as crushed stone. Gravel is classifi ...

and isolated mud lenses. Coarser deposits occur in the north closer to the Salt Range, but otherwise the distribution of grain sizes is irregular. The currently active Indus River flood plain stretches > 20 km in width at the southern edges of the desert and the abandoned floodplain reaches even wider, covering areas of higher ground.Greenman, D.W., Swarzenski, W.V., Bennett, G.D., 1967. Ground-Water Hydrology of the Punjab, West Pakistan, with Emphasis on Problems Caused by Canal Irrigation. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, United States Geological Survey, Water-supply paper 1608H. pp. 1–66. These uplands are actively eroded by the Jhelum River and form up to scarps which face the floodplain. As compared to the Upper Indus sand, the sand dunes of the Thal are poorer in quartz and sedimentary to low-rank metasedimentary rock fragments. However, they are higher in feldspars, volcanic, metavolcanic and metabasite rock fragments and heavy minerals. The dune sand is thought to be derived from the

Transhimalaya The Transhimalaya (also spelled Trans-Himalaya), or "Gangdise – Nyenchen Tanglha range" ( zh, s=冈底斯-念青唐古拉山脉, p=Gāngdǐsī-Niànqīngtánggǔlā Shānmài), is a mountain range in China, India and Nepal, extending in a west ...

n arcs (40–45%, predominantly from the

Kohistan Kohistan ( fa, کوہستان, ), also transliterated Kuhistan, Kuhiston, Quhistan, may refer to: In Afghanistan *Kohistan District, Kapisa, Kapisa Province ** Kohistan Hesa Awal District, a district in Kapisa Province, created within the form ...

arc), the Karakorum-Hindukush Ranges (40–50%, of which a third is via the Kabul River), the Nanga Parbat massif (< 10%), and the Himalayan belt (< 10%, inclusive of

detritus In biology, detritus () is dead particulate organic material, as distinguished from dissolved organic material. Detritus typically includes the bodies or fragments of bodies of dead organisms, and fecal material. Detritus typically hosts commun ...

recycled by the Soan River).

Climate

The Thal desert is a

sandy region with severe climatic conditions that are prone to temperature extremes. Approximately 50% of the region sees

hyper-arid A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most a ...

climatic conditions (annual rainfall less than 200mm) and the remaining half sees semi-arid climatic conditions (annual rainfall between 200mm and 500mm). The desert is also characterised by strong winds that blow year-round and can cause serious wind erosion that leads to local crop damage.

Temperature

Summers in the area see temperatures generally range from 32^o C - 40^o C and average around 35^o C between June to July. However, southern borne hot winds blowing with high velocity can see these temperatures rise to over 45^oC. Dust storms, resulting from unsteady thermal conditions, are also common in the summer months. This has made crop cultivation challenging as the soil becomes difficult to bind, leading to extensive erosion and losses for the farming community. In the winter, temperatures vary between 3^o C and 8^o C and are accompanied by cold, dry winds from the north. In January, temperatures can reach near freezing point.

Precipitation

The Thal Desert's rainfall patterns are low and erratic with mean annual values ranging between 150-350mm. The majority of precipitation occurs between the months of June and August however there is high variability across seasons and even years. Total annual rainfall has been seen to progressively decrease from the northern end of the desert to the south. It also displays cyclic fluctuations where two to three years of continued decreased rainfall is followed up by several years of higher precipitation levels. Hailstorms, generated by air turbulence owing to the high temperature difference between the warm surface and the cold upper atmosphere, are also common between March and April and can cause severe damage to crop and buildings.

Vegetation and Flora

Semi-nomadic Cholistani women are cutting and preparing fodder for animals

The vegetation of the Thal Desert consists predominantly of grasses and sedges which are most commonly used as

fodder Fodder (), also called provender (), is any agriculture, agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, domestic rabbit, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food g ...

by the local population. Thorny and prickly shrubs as well as perennial herbs capable of enduring droughts, are also present.Shaheen, H. (2015). ''FLORISTIC AND ETHNOBOTANICAL ENUMERATION of THAL DESERT, PUNJAB, PAKISTAN'' (Ph.D). Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi. A floristic checklist of the Thal desert observed that ''

Poaceae Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns an ...

'' was the main family with 52 species. Most of the flora is of

herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of t ...

nature, followed by grasses, trees, shrubs, sedges and climbers in decreasing abundance. The only trees which grow in the desert include the ''Khagal'', ''Shareen'', ''

Acacia ''Acacia'', commonly known as the wattles or acacias, is a large genus of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae. Initially, it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa and Australasia. The genus na ...

'', ''Beri'' (Ziziphus Jajoba) and ''Karir'' types.Lok Sanjh Foundation. (2013). ''Thal Desert: A Research Study on Understanding Desert Ecology and Livelihood Patterns'' book Retrieved from http://loksanjh.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Desert_Ecology_Study.pdf Ephemeral herbs also appear seasonally and shed their seeds before the arrival of summer when climatic conditions become more unfavourable throughout the desert. Medicinal purposes also account for another major usage of the plants; for example '' Harmal'' is used for indigestion and ''Kartuma'' is used to treat wounds. Other uses including thatching huts, building livestock shelters and creating household items such as baskets and dyes. The most commonly used species is the '' Saccharum'' with its various uses in sheltering,

and making objects. Most sub-regions of the desert are dominated by one species of plants which is a notable feature of such deserts. The vegetation is also highly dependent on the seasonal rainfall patterns which determine the ability of species to re-establish in the next sufficiently wet monsoon. Most plants that are grown are done so for the sole purpose of soil binding as this helps bind the sandy soil and fertilise it for future generations. Gram (

chickpea The chickpea or chick pea (''Cicer arietinum'') is an annual legume of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. Its different types are variously known as gram" or Bengal gram, garbanzo or garbanzo bean, or Egyptian pea. Chickpea seeds are high ...

) is the most successfully cultivated crop in the region's arid conditions and the desert accounts for the bulk of chickpea production in Pakistan. The Thal desert has also seen severe erosion to its natural vegetation as a result of anthropogenic activities such as human settlement and land cultivation, which led to

desertification Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by ...

. Much of the natural vegetation has been replaced replaced by perennial grasses, which may be a response to the anthropogenic pressure on the flora by human as well as animals.

Fauna

Livestock plays an important role towards the livelihood of the people in the region, serving as a relatively secure source of income as compared to unpredictable crop yields. The average herd size is 17 standard units and typically consist of goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, camels, donkeys, and mules. Turdoides squamiceps1 cropped

The desert's natural wildlife, inclusive of deer, jackals, parrots and wood-peckers, has seen drastic decline since the 1970s with current numbers nearing extinction. The common (desert) red fox,

Kuhl's pipistrelle Kuhl's pipistrelle (''Pipistrellus kuhlii'') is a species of vesper bat that occurs in large areas of North Africa, Southern Europe and West Asia. It lives in temperate forests, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, Mediterranean-type shrubby ve ...

, Indian desert cat, Chinkara, Indian hare, and Indian hairy-footed gerbil habitats are also present but in very small numbers as result of direct reductions and habitat changes over the last century. The desert is home to both resident and migratory species. The Thal Game Reserve is estimated to host over 2.5 million birds from 55 different species. Bird populations peak around December–January, due to an increase in the population of migratory and winter visitor species. After midwinter, overall population begins to decline and reaches its minimum between May–June. Migratory birds include the

Peregrine Falcon The peregrine falcon (''Falco peregrinus''), also known as the peregrine, and historically as the duck hawk in North America, is a Cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan bird of prey (Bird of prey, raptor) in the family (biology), family Falco ...

, Common quail,

Sky Lark The Eurasian skylark (''Alauda arvensis'') is a passerine bird in the lark family, Alaudidae. It is a widespread species found across Europe and the Palearctic with introduced populations in New Zealand, Australia and on the Hawaiian Islands. ...

, Rosy Starling, Yellow Wagtail and the Desert Warbler. These species breed in western Siberia and migrate to Pakistan during winter. The overall density of resident bird species is higher with the most abundant species being Turdoides squamiceps (Arabian babbler) and Lanius excubitor (Great grey shrike). The birds feed on the large variety of insects found in the desert. These include the Cattle egret, Little green bee-eater, Persian bee-eater, Indian roller and Golden backed woodpecker. Cultivated crops such as chickpeas, wheat, maize and rice are also an important food source to the granivorous birds. Larger species such as the Laggar and Peregrine falcons also prey on rodents,

lizard Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia alt ...

s and small birds found in the area.

History

The Greater Thal canal

The history of the Thal Canal Project dates back to 1873 when the project was first conceived for the whole of the Thal Doab. The proposal to irrigate this area with water from the Indus River was repeatedly brought up for discussion in 1919, 1921, 1924, 1925, 1936 and in 1949. It was repeatedly shelved because of the argument that it would severely hurt water availability to the lower riparians. The project proposal came under discussion again in 1975 when the Executive Committee of the National Economic Council (ECNEC) refused to endorse the project. On August 16, 2001, Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf inaugurated the 30-billion-rupee Greater Thal Canal project (GTC). The second phase of the Greater Thal Canal Phase project (Choubara Branch) was launched in 2020. This will bring around 300 000 acres of the desert land under irrigation.

Settlement of the Thal Desert

The partitioning of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 resulted in the migration of over 15 million people and created a refugee problem for the then government. The Thal Settlement project arose as a solution to this issue with plans to settle a number of refugees into the sparsely populated Thal Desert. In July 1949, the Punjab Government enacted a law for the constitution of a public corporation, the Thal Development Authority (TDA), which began its development operations the following year in 1950. Punjabi Home

Throughout its lifetime, the TDA initiated a number of projects including the Sheep Breeding Scheme in 1952, the Open Auction Scheme in 1954 and the Peasant Grant Scheme of 1955. The Peasant Grant Scheme, which was aimed at refugees and migrators from India, offered a 15 acers incentive for settlement in the Thal desert under a number of varying conditions, one of which required the land to only be used for agricultural purposes. Over 110 villages were also established by the TDA over its lifespan which enabled the settlement of over 31377 families of refugees and migrants in the Thal Desert.Pakistan's Projects FERTILE FIELDS FROM DESERT (1952, February 26). ''Queensland Times (Ipswich, Qld. : 1909 - 1954)'', p. 3 (Daily). Retrieved April 27, 2021, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article124584454 Facilities such as schools and post offices were also provided by the TDA alongside the construction of peasant houses, huts, and cattle sheds. The TDA was dissolved in 1969 by the Government of Punjab. The years between 1953 and 1969 also saw the levelling of over 690 000 acres of the Thal Desert, the construction of over 2000 miles worth of main and link roads to connect the new villages and over 63 000 miles worth of water channels. However, development of the region with the canal project, settlement of people and reclamation of land for agricultural usages has also changed the ecology of the area. Grazing lands have diminished and the biodiversity of the area has also decreased.

Culture and society

The Thal desert is deficit in resources and

infrastructure Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and priv ...

with very limited health services, schools, electricity, water and sanitation. Erratic rainfall patterns, frequent droughts and shifting sand dunes result in serious losses to farmers and have contributed to the widespread poverty in the area. The population lives in scattered settlements and most farmers own less than 5 acres of land, which is difficult to cultivate. Grazier - Shepherds in Pakistan

Agriculture and livestock form the primary sources of livelihood with gram flour being the main cash crop. Milk production is also a major source of income and for this reason, cows and buffaloes are raised more frequently than camels or goats. Livestock productivity is limited due to fodder shortages as a result of climatic fluctuations, limited availability of veterinary services and poor access to animal vaccinations. In cases of crop failure, livestock is often sold in order to improve financial standing. Skins from livestock such as sheep and camels are also sold for making leather goods whilst teeth and bones are utilised for objects such as buttons, jewellery, and decoration. Camels are also commonly used for transportation throughout the region. There are several tribes in the area including the Tiwana, Sial, Mammak, Bhachar, Baghoor, Rahdari, Jhammat peoples. Saraiki is the primary language spoken by locals however

is also widely used. Male education and literacy rates are comparatively higher as compared to females but overall, still some of the lowest in the province of Punjab. The most common occupations, in both men and women, consists of

shepherd A shepherd or sheepherder is a person who tends, herds, feeds, or guards flocks of sheep. ''Shepherd'' derives from Old English ''sceaphierde (''sceap'' 'sheep' + ''hierde'' 'herder'). ''Shepherding is one of the world's oldest occupations, i ...

s, farmed livestock caretakers and domestic livestock caretakers. Most villages do not have a single indoor toilet facility. Chronic stomach ailments are common due to the quality of water available. Females are also more vulnerable to health conditions, particularly those related to maternity as the nearest hospital capable of treatment is generally great distances away.

References

External links

* {{Authority control Deserts of Pakistan Deserts and xeric shrublands Ecoregions of Pakistan Ergs Geography of Punjab, Pakistan Indomalayan ecoregions Geography of Pakistan Deserts