The Ten Years' War (; 1868–1878), also known as the Great War () and the War of '68, was part of
Cuba
Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...
's fight for independence from
Spain
Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
. The uprising was led by Cuban-born planters and other wealthy natives. On 10 October 1868, sugar mill owner
Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and his followers proclaimed independence, beginning the conflict. This was the first of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the
Little War (1879–1880) and the
Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898). The final three months of the last conflict escalated with
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
involvement, leading to the
Spanish–American War
The Spanish–American War (April 21 – August 13, 1898) was fought between Restoration (Spain), Spain and the United States in 1898. It began with the sinking of the USS Maine (1889), USS ''Maine'' in Havana Harbor in Cuba, and resulted in the ...
.
Background
Slavery
Cuban
bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and aristocracy. They are traditionally contrasted wi ...
demanded fundamental social and economic reforms from the
Crown. Lax enforcement of the
slave trade ban had resulted in a dramatic increase in imports of
Africans, estimated at 90,000 slaves from 1856 to 1860. This occurred despite a strong
abolitionist
Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world.
The first country to fully outlaw slavery was Kingdom of France, France in 1315, but it was later used ...
movement on the
island
An island or isle is a piece of land, distinct from a continent, completely surrounded by water. There are continental islands, which were formed by being split from a continent by plate tectonics, and oceanic islands, which have never been ...
, and rising costs among the slave-holding planters in the east. New technologies and farming techniques made large numbers of slaves unnecessary and prohibitively expensive. In the
economic crisis of 1857 many
businesses failed, including many
sugar
Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose
Glucose is a sugar with the Chemical formula#Molecular formula, molecul ...
plantations and
sugar refineries. The
abolitionist
Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world.
The first country to fully outlaw slavery was Kingdom of France, France in 1315, but it was later used ...
cause gained strength, favoring a gradual
emancipation
Emancipation generally means to free a person from a previous restraint or legal disability. More broadly, it is also used for efforts to procure Economic, social and cultural rights, economic and social rights, civil and political rights, po ...
of slaves with
financial compensation
Financial compensation refers to the act of providing a person with money or other things of economic value in exchange for their goods, labor, or to provide for the costs of injuries that they have incurred. The aim of financial compensation ...
from the government for slaveholders. Additionally, some planters preferred hiring
Chinese immigrants as indentured workers and in anticipation of ending
slavery
Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
. Before the 1870s, more than 125,000 were sent to Cuba.
In May 1865, Cuban
criollo elites placed four demands upon the
Spanish Parliament:
tariff
A tariff or import tax is a duty (tax), duty imposed by a national Government, government, customs territory, or supranational union on imports of goods and is paid by the importer. Exceptionally, an export tax may be levied on exports of goods ...
reform,
political representation in Parliament,
judicial equality for all Spaniards (including Cubans), and full enforcement of the slave trade ban.
[Arthur F. Corwin, ''Spain and the Abolition of Slavery in Cuba, 1817–1886'' (1967) ]
Colonial policies
The Spanish Parliament at the time was changing; gaining much influence were reactionary, traditionalist politicians who intended to eliminate all
liberal reforms. The power of military tribunals was increased; the colonial government imposed a six percent
tax
A tax is a mandatory financial charge or levy imposed on an individual or legal entity by a governmental organization to support government spending and public expenditures collectively or to regulate and reduce negative externalities. Tax co ...
increase on the Cuban planters and businesses. Additionally, all
political opposition and the
press were silenced. Dissatisfaction in Cuba spread on a massive scale as the mechanisms to express it were restricted. This
discontent was particularly felt by the powerful planters and
hacienda
A ''hacienda'' ( or ; or ) is an estate (or '' finca''), similar to a Roman '' latifundium'', in Spain and the former Spanish Empire. With origins in Andalusia, ''haciendas'' were variously plantations (perhaps including animals or orchards ...
owners in
Eastern Cuba.
The failure of the latest efforts by the reformist movements, the demise of the ''"Information Board,"'' and another economic crisis in 1866/67 heightened social tensions on the island. The colonial administration continued to make huge profits which were not re-invested in the island for the benefit of its residents. It funded military expenditures (44% of the revenue), colonial government's expenses (41%), and sent some money to the Spanish colony of
Fernando Po (12%). The European Spaniards (known as ''
peninsulares'') concentrated a good deal of the island's wealth through their paramount role in Cuban trade. In addition, the Cuban-born population still had no political rights and no representation in Parliament. Objections to these conditions sparked the first serious independence movement, especially in the eastern part of the island.
Revolutionary conspiracy
In July 1867, the ''"Revolutionary Committee of Bayamo"'' was founded under the leadership of Cuba's wealthiest plantation owner,
Francisco Vicente Aguilera. The conspiracy rapidly spread to Oriente's larger towns, most of all
Manzanillo, where
Carlos Manuel de Céspedes became the main protagonist of the uprising in 1868. Originally from
Bayamo, Céspedes owned an estate and
sugar mill known as ''
La Demajagua''. The Spanish, aware of Céspedes' anti-colonial intransigence, tried to force him into submission by imprisoning his son
Oscar. Céspedes refused to negotiate and Oscar was executed.
History
The Cry of Yara uprising and the 10th of October Manifesto

Céspedes and his followers had planned the uprising to begin 14 October, but it had to be moved up four days earlier, because the Spaniards had discovered their plan of revolt. In the early morning of 10 October, Céspedes issued the cry of
independence
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state, in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the status of ...
, the "10th of October Manifesto" at
La Demajagua, which signaled the start of an all-out military uprising against Spanish rule in Cuba. Céspedes freed his slaves and asked them to join the struggle. 10 October is now commemorated in Cuba as a national holiday called the
Cry of Yara (
Spanish: ''Grito de Yara)''.

Carlos Manuel de Céspedes called on men of all races to join the fight for freedom. He raised the
new flag of an independent Cuba, and rang the
Bell of La Demajagua to celebrate his proclamation from the steps of the sugar mill of the
manifesto
A manifesto is a written declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an individual, group, political party, or government. A manifesto can accept a previously published opinion or public consensus, but many prominent ...
signed by him and 15 others. It cataloged Spain's mistreatment of Cuba and then expressed the movement's aims:
During the first few days, the uprising almost failed: Céspedes intended to occupy the nearby town of
Yara on 11 October. In spite of this initial setback, the uprising of Yara was supported in various regions of the
Oriente province, and the independence movement continued to spread throughout the eastern region of Cuba. On 13 October, the rebels took eight towns in the province that favoured the
insurgency
An insurgency is a violent, armed rebellion by small, lightly armed bands who practice guerrilla warfare against a larger authority. The key descriptive feature of insurgency is its asymmetric warfare, asymmetric nature: small irregular forces ...
and acquisition of
arms
Arms or ARMS may refer to:
*Arm or arms, the upper limbs of the body
Arm, Arms, or ARMS may also refer to:
People
* Ida A. T. Arms (1856–1931), American missionary-educator, temperance leader
Coat of arms or weapons
*Armaments or weapons
**Fi ...
. By October's end, the insurrection had enlisted some 12,000 volunteers.
Military responses
That same month,
Máximo Gómez taught the Cuban forces what would be their most lethal tactic: the ''
machete charge''. He was a former
cavalry officer for the
Spanish Army
The Spanish Army () is the terrestrial army of the Spanish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is one of the oldest Standing army, active armies – dating back to the late 15th century.
The Spanish Army has existed ...
in the
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean Sea in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean. It shares a Maritime boundary, maritime border with Puerto Rico to the east and ...
. Forces were taught to combine use of firearms with machetes, for a double attack against the Spanish. When the
Spaniards
Spaniards, or Spanish people, are a Romance-speaking ethnic group native to the Iberian Peninsula, primarily associated with the modern nation-state of Spain. Genetically and ethnolinguistically, Spaniards belong to the broader Southern a ...
(following then-standard tactics) formed a
square
In geometry, a square is a regular polygon, regular quadrilateral. It has four straight sides of equal length and four equal angles. Squares are special cases of rectangles, which have four equal angles, and of rhombuses, which have four equal si ...
, they were vulnerable to
rifle
A rifle is a long gun, long-barreled firearm designed for accurate shooting and higher stopping power, with a gun barrel, barrel that has a helical or spiralling pattern of grooves (rifling) cut into the bore wall. In keeping with their focus o ...
fire from
infantry
Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
under cover, and
pistol and
carbine fire from charging cavalry. In the event, as with the
Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution ( or ; ) was a successful insurrection by slave revolt, self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti. The revolution was the only known Slave rebellion, slave up ...
, the
European forces suffered the most fatalities due to
yellow fever because the Spanish-born troops had no acquired
immunity to this endemic
tropical disease
Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions. The diseases are less prevalent in temperate climates, due in part to the occurrence of a cold season, which controls the insect population by forc ...
of the island.
Escalation
After three days of combat, the rebels seized the important city of
Bayamo. In the enthusiasm of this victory, poet and musician
Perucho Figueredo composed Cuba's national anthem, "
La Bayamesa”. The first government of the
Republic in Arms, headed by Céspedes, was established in Bayamo. The city was retaken by the Spanish after 3 months on 12 January, but the fighting had
burned it to the ground.
The war spread in Oriente: on 4 November 1868,
Camagüey rose up in arms during the
Las Clavellinas Uprising and, in early February 1869,
Las Villas followed. The uprising was not supported in the westernmost provinces of
Pinar del Río,
Havana
Havana (; ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center.[Matanzas
Matanzas (Cuban ; ) is the capital of the Cuban province of Matanzas Province, Matanzas. Known for its poets, culture, and Afro-American religions, Afro-Cuban folklore, it is located on the northern shore of the island of Cuba, on the Bay of Mat ...](_bl ...<br></span></div> and <div class=)
. With few exceptions (Vuelta Abajo), resistance was clandestine. A staunch supporter of the rebellion was
José Martí who, at the age of 16, was detained and condemned to 16 years of hard labour. He was later deported to Spain. Eventually he developed as a leading Latin American intellectual and Cuba's foremost national hero, its primary architect of the 1895–98
Cuban War of Independence.
After some initial victories and defeats, in 1868 Céspedes replaced Gomez as head of the Cuban Army with United States General
Thomas Jordan, a veteran of
Confederate States Army
The Confederate States Army (CSA), also called the Confederate army or the Southern army, was the Military forces of the Confederate States, military land force of the Confederate States of America (commonly referred to as the Confederacy) duri ...
in the
American Civil War
The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...
. He brought a well-equipped force, but General Jordan's reliance on regular tactics, although initially effective, left the families of Cuban rebels far too vulnerable to the "
ethnic cleansing
Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, or religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making the society ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal such as deportation or population transfer, it ...
" tactics of the ruthless
Blas Villate, Count of Valmaceda (also spelled Balmaceda).
Valeriano Weyler, known as the "Butcher Weyler" in the 1895–1898 War, fought alongside the Count of Balmaceda.
After General Jordan resigned and returned to the US, Cespedes returned Máximo Gómez to his command. Gradually a new generation of skilled battle-tested Cuban commanders rose from the ranks, including
Antonio Maceo Grajales,
José Maceo,
Calixto García,
Vicente García González and
Federico Fernández Cavada. Raised in the United States and with an American mother, Fernández Cavada had served as a colonel in the
Union Army during the American Civil War. His brother
Adolfo Fernández Cavada also joined the Cuban fighting for independence. On 4 April 1870, the senior
Federico Fernández Cavada was named Commander-in-Chief of all the Cuban forces.
[The Latino Experience in U.S. History"; publisher: Globe Pearson; pp. 155–57; ] Other war leaders of note fighting on the Cuban
Mambí side included
Donato Mármol,
Luis Marcano-Alvarez,
Carlos Roloff, Enrique Loret de Mola,
Julio Sanguily,
Domingo de Goicuría,
Guillermo Moncada,
Quintin Bandera, Benjamín Ramirez, and
Julio Grave de Peralta.
Because of the escalating violence, after the first year of the war, around 100,000 Cubans fled the country. Generally speaking, those rich enough settled in Europe or else in northern cities in America like
New York,
Philadelphia
Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
, or
Boston
Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...
. Meanwhile, the poorer workers moved to south
Florida
Florida ( ; ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders the Gulf of Mexico to the west, Alabama to the northwest, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the north, the Atlantic ...
, first settling in
Key West
Key West is an island in the Straits of Florida, at the southern end of the U.S. state of Florida. Together with all or parts of the separate islands of Dredgers Key, Fleming Key, Sunset Key, and the northern part of Stock Island, it con ...
, and then in
Tampa
Tampa ( ) is a city on the Gulf Coast of the United States, Gulf Coast of the U.S. state of Florida. Tampa's borders include the north shore of Tampa Bay and the east shore of Old Tampa Bay. Tampa is the largest city in the Tampa Bay area and t ...
.
Constitutional assembly
On 10 April 1869, a constitutional assembly took place in the town of
Guáimaro. It was intended to provide the revolution with greater organizational and juridical unity, with representatives from the areas that had joined the uprising. The assembly discussed whether a centralized leadership should be in charge of both military and civilian affairs, or if there should be a separation between civilian government and military leadership, the latter being subordinate to the first. The overwhelming majority voted for the separation option. Céspedes was elected president of this assembly; and General
Ignacio Agramonte y Loynáz and
Antonio Zambrana, principal authors of the proposed
Constitution
A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organization or other type of entity, and commonly determines how that entity is to be governed.
When these pri ...
, were elected secretaries. After completing its work, the Assembly reconstituted itself as the House of Representatives and the state's supreme power. They elected
Salvador Cisneros Betancourt as president,
Miguel Gerónimo Gutiérrez as vice president, and Agramonte and Zambrana as secretaries. Céspedes was elected on 12 April 1869, as the first president of the Republic in Arms and General
Manuel de Quesada (who had fought in Mexico under
Benito Juárez during the French invasion of that country), as Chief of the Armed Forces.
Spanish repressions
By early 1869, the Spanish authorities had failed to reach an agreement with the insurrection forces. Harsher measures to repress the insurrection and its supporters were taken, and troops began to flood in from the Peninsula.
Apart from the regular army, the government relied on the Voluntary Corps, a militia created in 1855 a few years earlier to face the announced invasion by
John A. Quitman in collaboration with Ramón Pintó. By early-1869 more than 70,000 men, both ''peninsulares'' and creoles had joined the Volunteers.
In the big cities, the Volunteers were used to keep public order in the cities, earning some notoriety for their lack of discipline and harsh acts of repression against independence supporters. Its forces executed eight students from the
University of Havana
The University of Havana (UH; ) is a public university located in the Vedado district of Havana, the capital of Cuba. Founded on 5 January 1728, the university is the oldest in Cuba, and one of the first to be founded in the Americas. Originall ...
on 27 November 1871. The corps seized the steamship ''
Virginius'' in international waters on 31 October 1873. Starting on 4 November, its forces executed 53 persons, including the captain, most of the crew, and a number of Cuban insurgents on board.
The serial executions were stopped only by the intervention of a British man-of-war under the command of
Sir Lambton Lorraine.
Apart from their controversial role in the cities, hundreds of Volunteer units were created in the countryside. Most of the Volunteers there were Cubans loyal to Spain who organised sections and companies to defend their hometowns from rebel attacks, giving a tone of civil war to Cuba's first war of independence. According to a Spanish journalist, by 1872, 52,000 of the 80,000 Volunteers were Cuban-born.
In the so-called "Creciente de Valmaseda" incident, the corps captured farmers (Guajiros) and the families of Mambises, killing them immediately or sending them ''en masse'' to
concentration camp
A concentration camp is a prison or other facility used for the internment of political prisoners or politically targeted demographics, such as members of national or ethnic minority groups, on the grounds of national security, or for exploitati ...
s on the island. The
Mambises fought using
guerrilla
Guerrilla warfare is a form of unconventional warfare in which small groups of irregular military, such as rebels, Partisan (military), partisans, paramilitary personnel or armed civilians, which may include Children in the military, recruite ...
tactics and were more effective on the eastern side of the island than in the west, where they lacked supplies.
Another Voluntary Corps was formed by
Germans
Germans (, ) are the natives or inhabitants of Germany, or sometimes more broadly any people who are of German descent or native speakers of the German language. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany, constitution of Germany, imple ...
, the so-called "Club des Alemanes". Presided by
Fernando Heydrich, a committee of German
merchants and
landowners created a troop to defend their possessions in 1870. A neutral force initially, as ordered by
Otto von Bismarck
Otto, Prince of Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen, Duke of Lauenburg (; born ''Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck''; 1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898) was a German statesman and diplomat who oversaw the unification of Germany and served as ...
in a telegram to consul Luis Will, they were considered to favor the government.
Rebel political strife
Ignacio Agramonte was killed by a stray bullet on 11 May 1873, and was replaced in the command of the central troops by Máximo Gómez. Because of political and personal disagreements and Agramonte's death, the Assembly deposed Céspedes as president, replacing him with Cisneros. Agramonte had realized that his dream Constitution and government were ill-suited to the Cuban Republic in Arms, which was the reason he quit as secretary and assumed command of the Camaguey region. He became a supporter of Cespedes. Céspedes was later surprised and killed on 27 February 1874, by a swift-moving patrol of Spanish troops. The new Cuban government had left him with only one escort and denied permission to leave Cuba for the US, from where he intended to help prepare and send armed expeditions.
Continued warfare
Activities in the Ten Years' War peaked in the years 1872 and 1873, but after the deaths of Agramonte and Céspedes, Cuban operations were limited to the regions of Camagüey and
Oriente. Gómez began an invasion of Western Cuba in 1875, but the vast majority of slaves and wealthy sugar producers in the region did not join the revolt. After his most trusted general, the American
Henry Reeve, was killed in 1876, Gómez ended his campaign.
Spain's efforts to fight were hindered by the civil war (
Third Carlist War) that broke out in Spain in 1872. When the civil war ended in 1876, the government sent more Spanish troops to Cuba, until they numbered more than 250,000. The severe Spanish measures weakened the liberation forces ruled by Cisneros. Neither side in the war was able to win a single concrete victory, let alone crush the opposing side to win the war, but in the long run Spain gained the upper hand.
Failing insurgency
The deep divisions among insurgents regarding their organisation of government and the military became more pronounced after the Assembly of Guáimaro, as resulting in the dismissal of Céspedes and Quesada in 1873. The Spanish exploited regional divisions, as well as fears that the slaves of Matanzas would break the weak existing balance between whites and blacks. The Spanish changed their policy towards the Mambises, offering amnesties and reforms.
The Mambises did not prevail for a variety of reasons: lack of organization and resources; lower participation by whites; internal racist sabotage (against Maceo and the goals of the Liberating Army); the inability to bring the war to the western provinces (Havana in particular); and opposition by the US government to Cuban independence. The US sold the latest weapons to Spain, but not to the Cuban rebels.
["The Ten Year War"](_blank)
History of Cuba website
Peace negotiations and hold-outs
Tomás Estrada Palma succeeded
Juan Bautista Spotorno as president of the Republic in Arms. Estrada Palma was captured by Spanish troops on 19 October 1877. As a result of successive misfortunes, on 8 February 1878, the constitutional organs of the Cuban government were dissolved; the remaining leaders among the insurgents started negotiating for peace in Zanjón, Puerto Príncipe.
General
Arsenio Martínez Campos, in charge of applying the new policy, arrived in Cuba. It took him nearly two years to convince most of the rebels to accept the
Pact of Zanjón; it was signed on 10 February 1878, by a negotiating committee. The document contained most of the promises made by Spain.
The Ten Years' War came to an end, except for the resistance of a small group in Oriente led by General Garcia and
Antonio Maceo Grajales, who protested in Los Mangos de Baraguá on 15 March.
Aftermath
Pact of Zanjón
Under the terms of the pact, a constitution and a provisional government was set up, but the revolutionary élan was gone. The provisional government convinced Maceo to give up, and with his surrender, the war ended on 28 May 1878. Many veterans of the Ten Years' War became leading figures in
Cuba's War of Independence that started in 1895. These include the Maceo brothers, Maximo Gómez,
Calixto Garcia and others.
The
Pact of Zanjón promised various reforms to improve the financial situation for residents of Cuba. The most significant reform was the manumission of all slaves who had fought for Spain. Abolition of slavery had been proposed by the rebels, and many persons loyal to Spain also wanted to abolish it. Finally in 1880, the Spanish legislature abolished slavery in Cuba and other colonies in a form of gradual abolition. The law required slaves to continue to work for their masters for a number of years, in a kind of indentured servitude, but masters had to pay the slaves for their work. The wages were so low, however, that the
freedmen could barely support themselves.
Remaining tensions
After the war ended, tensions between Cuban residents and the Spanish government continued for 17 years. This period, called "The Rewarding Truce", included the outbreak of the
Little War (''La Guerra Chiquita'') between 1879 and 1880.
Separatists in that conflict became supporters of
José Martí, the most passionate of the rebels who chose exile over Spanish rule. Overall, about 190,000 people died in the conflict: 100,000 Cubans—including 40,000 guerrillas (25,000 of whom died from disease and repression) and 60,000 civilians—and 90,000 Spaniards, including 81,000 soldiers (54,000 from disease), 5,000 Cuban loyalists, 3,200 Spanish marines, and 1,700 Spanish sailors.
Together with a severe economic depression throughout the island, the war devastated the
coffee industry, and American tariffs badly damaged Cuban exports.
Further legacy
Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban politician and revolutionary who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and President of Cuba, president ...
sought to frame the
26th of July Movement as a direct continuation of the
anti-colonial struggle of the Ten Years' War and the
War of Independence
Wars of national liberation, also called wars of independence or wars of liberation, are conflicts fought by nations to gain independence. The term is used in conjunction with wars against foreign powers (or at least those perceived as foreign) ...
.
See also
*
Ana Betancourt – a female "Mambisa" who used the war to campaign for women's equality
*
Cuban War of Independence
*
Cuban Junta
*
Francisco Gonzalo Marín
*
History of Cuba
*
José Semidei Rodríguez
*
Juan Bautista Spotorno
*
Juan Ríus Rivera
*
Little War (Cuba)
*
Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant#Cuban insurrection
*
Rosa Castellanos
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
Further reading
* Bartlett, Christopher J. "British Reaction to the Cuban Insurrection of 1868–1878." ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 37.3 (1957): 296–312
online* Benjamin, Jules R. '' The United States and the Origins of the Cuban Revolution: An Empire of Liberty in an Age of National Liberation'' (1990) pp. 13–19
* Campbell, Charles. ''The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant'' (2017) pp. 179–198
* Campbell, Charles. ''The Transformation of American Foreign Relations'' (1976) pp. 53–59
* Chapin, James. "Hamilton Fish and the Lessons of the Ten Years' War," in Jules Davids, ed., ''Perspectives in American Diplomacy'' (1976) pp. 33, 131–163
* Corwin, Arthur F. ''Spain and the Abolition of Slavery in Cuba, 1817–1886'' (1967)
* Ferrer, Ada. ''Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868–1898'' (1999)
* Gott, Richard. ''Cuba: A New History'' (2004) pp. 71–83
* Hernandez, Jose M. ''Cuba and the United States: Intervention and Militarism, 1868–1933'' (1993) pp. 6–15
* Langley, Lester D. ''The Cuban Policy of the United States: A Brief History'' (1968) pp. 53–81
* Nevins, Allan. ''Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration'' (1936) 1:176–200, 2:667–694
* Padilla Angulo, Fernando J. ''Volunteers of the Empire. War, Identity, and Spanish Imperialism, 1855–1898''. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2023.
* Padilla, Andrés Sánchez. ''Enemigos íntimos: España y los Estados Unidos antes de la Guerra de Cuba (1865–1898)'' (Universitat de València, 2016)
* Pérez, Louis A., Jr. ''Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy'' (1990) pp. 50–54
* Priest, Andrew. "Thinking about Empire: The administration of Ulysses S. Grant, Spanish colonialism and the ten years' war in Cuba." ''Journal of American Studies'' 48.2 (2014): 541–558
online
* Sexton, Jay. "The United States, the Cuban rebellion, and the multilateral initiative of 1875." ''Diplomatic History'' 30.3 (2006): 335–365
* Thomas, Hugh. ''Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom'' (1971) pp. 244–263
* Pirala, Antonio. ''Anales de la Guerra en Cuba,'' (1895, 1896 and some from 1874) Felipe González Rojas (editor), Madrid. This may still be the most detailed source for information on the Ten Years' War.
* Ziegler, Vanessa Michelle. "The revolt of "the Ever-faithful Isle": the Ten Years' War in Cuba, 1868–1878". PhD dissertation.
anta Barbara University of California, Santa Barbara, 2007. Electronic Dissertations D16.5.C2 S25 ZIEV 2007
nline
External links
* Portions of this article were extracted fro
CubaGenWeb
{{Authority control
Spanish colonial period of Cuba
.
Spanish American wars of independence
19th century in Cuba
Wars of independence
Anti-imperialism in North America
Military history of the Caribbean
Military history of Cuba
Rebellions against the Spanish Empire
Wars involving Cuba
Wars involving Spain
19th-century rebellions
19th-century revolutions
1860s conflicts
1870s conflicts
1860s in Cuba
1870s in Cuba