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Syrian Jews ( he, יהודי סוריה ''Yehudey Surya'', ar, الْيَهُود السُّورِيُّون ''al-Yahūd as-Sūriyyūn'', colloquially called SYs in the United States) are Jews who lived in the region of the modern state of
Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, and their descendants born outside Syria. Syrian Jews derive their origin from two groups: from the Jews who inhabited the region of today's Syria from ancient times (known as
Musta'arabi Jews Musta'arabi Jews (Musta'aribun اليهود المستعربة in Arabic; Musta'arvim מוּסְתערבים in Hebrew) were the Arabic-speaking Jews, largely Mizrahi Jews and Maghrebi Jews, who lived in the Middle East and North Africa prior ...
, and sometimes classified as
Mizrahi Jews Mizrahi Jews ( he, יהודי המִזְרָח), also known as ''Mizrahim'' () or ''Mizrachi'' () and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or ''Edot HaMizrach'' (, ), are a grouping of Jewish communities comprising those who remained ...
, a generic term for the Jews with an extended history in Western Asia or North Africa); and from the
Sephardi Jews Sephardic (or Sephardi) Jews (, ; lad, Djudíos Sefardíes), also ''Sepharadim'' , Modern Hebrew: ''Sfaradim'', Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm, also , ''Ye'hude Sepharad'', lit. "The Jews of Spain", es, Judíos sefardíes (or ), pt, Judeus sefa ...
(referring to Jews with an extended history in the
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
, i.e. Spain and
Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of th ...
) who fled to Syria after the
Alhambra Decree The Alhambra Decree (also known as the Edict of Expulsion; Spanish: ''Decreto de la Alhambra'', ''Edicto de Granada'') was an edict issued on 31 March 1492, by the joint Catholic Monarchs of Spain (Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Arag ...
forced the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492. There were large communities in
Aleppo )), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black". , motto = , image_map = , mapsize = , map_caption = , image_map1 = ...
("Halabi Jews", Aleppo is ''Halab'' in Arabic) and
Damascus )), is an adjective which means "spacious". , motto = , image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg , image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg , seal_type = Seal , map_caption = , ...
("Shami Jews") for centuries, and a smaller community in Qamishli on the Turkish border near Nusaybin. In the first half of the 20th century a large percentage of Syrian Jews immigrated to the U.S., Latin America and Israel. Most of the remaining Jews left in the 28 years following 1973, due in part to the efforts of Judy Feld Carr, who claims to have helped some 3,228 Jews emigrate; emigration was officially allowed in 1992. The largest number of Jews of Syrian descent live in
Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
. Outside Israel, the largest Syrian Jewish community is in
Brooklyn Brooklyn () is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Kings County, in the U.S. state of New York. Kings County is the most populous county in the State of New York, and the second-most densely populated county in the United States, be ...
, New York and is estimated at 75,000 strong. There are smaller communities elsewhere in the United States and in Latin America. In 2011, there had been about 250 Jews still living within Syria, mostly in Damascus. As of December 2014, fewer than 50 Jews remained in the area due to increasing violence and war. In October 2015, with the threat of
ISIS Isis (; ''Ēse''; ; Meroitic: ''Wos'' 'a''or ''Wusa''; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤎, romanized: ʾs) was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kin ...
nearby, nearly all of the remaining Jews in
Aleppo )), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black". , motto = , image_map = , mapsize = , map_caption = , image_map1 = ...
were rescued in a covert operation and moved to Ashkelon, Israel. It was estimated in November 2015 that only 18 Jews remain in Syria. In September 2016, the last Jews of Aleppo were rescued, ending the Jewish presence in Aleppo. In August 2019, BBC Arabic visited some of the last remaining Jews living in Damascus.


History

There have been Jews in Syria since ancient times: according to the community's tradition, since the time of King
David David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
, and certainly since early Roman times. Jews from this ancient community were known as Musta'arabim ("Arabizers") to themselves, or ''Conversos'' to the Sephardim. Many Sephardim arrived following the expulsion from Spain in 1492, and quickly took a leading position in the community. For example, five successive Chief Rabbis of Aleppo were drawn from the Laniado family. In the 18th and 19th centuries, some Jews from
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
and elsewhere, known as ''Señores Francos'', notable Franco families are the Ancona, Silvera, and Pichotto families they settled in Syria for trading reasons, while retaining their European nationalities. Kurdish Jews, hailing from the region of Kurdistan, represent another sub-group of Syrian Jews. Their presence in Syria predates the arrival of Sephardic Jews following the ''reconquista''. The ancient communities of Urfa and Çermik also formed part of the broader Syrian community and the Aleppo community included some migrants from these cities. Today, some distinctions between these sub-groups are preserved, in the sense that particular families have traditions about their origins. However, there is considerable intermarriage among the groups and all regard themselves as "Sephardim" in a broader sense. It is said that one can tell Aleppo families of Spanish descent by the fact that they light an extra
Hanukkah or English translation: 'Establishing' or 'Dedication' (of the Temple in Jerusalem) , nickname = , observedby = Jews , begins = 25 Kislev , ends = 2 Tevet or 3 Tevet , celebrations = Lighting candles each nig ...
candle. This custom was apparently established in gratitude for their acceptance by the more native Syrian based community. In the 19th century, following the completion of the
Suez Canal The Suez Canal ( arz, قَنَاةُ ٱلسُّوَيْسِ, ') is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez and dividing Africa and Asia. The long canal is a popula ...
in Egypt in 1869, trade shifted to that route from the overland route through Syria, and the commercial importance of Aleppo and Damascus underwent a marked decline. Many families left Syria for Egypt (and a few for Lebanon) in the following decades, and with increasing frequency until the First World War, many Jews left the Middle East for western countries, mainly Great Britain, the United States, Mexico and
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the List of South American countries by area, second-largest ...
. Further emigration, particularly following the establishment of the state of
Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
in 1948, followed. Beginning on the Passover holiday of 1992, the 4,000 remaining members of the Damascus Jewish community (
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
''Yehud ash-Sham''), as well as the Aleppo community and the Jews of Qamishli, were permitted under the government of
Hafez al-Assad Hafez al-Assad ', , (, 6 October 1930 – 10 June 2000) was a Syrian statesman and military officer who served as President of Syria from taking power in 1971 until his death in 2000. He was also Prime Minister of Syria from 1970 to 1 ...
to leave Syria provided they did not immigrate to Israel. Within a few months, thousands of Syrian Jews made their way to Brooklyn, with a few families choosing to go to France and Turkey. The majority settled in Brooklyn with the help of their kin in the Syrian Jewish community.


Present-day Syrian Jewish communities


Israel

There has been a Jewish Syrian presence in
Jerusalem Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
since before 1850, with many rabbinical families having members both there and in Damascus and Aleppo. These had some contact with their
Ashkenazi Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...
opposite numbers of the Old Yishuv, leading to a tradition of strict orthodoxy: for example in the 1860s there was a successful campaign to prevent the establishment of a Reform synagogue in Aleppo. Some Syrian traditions, such as the singing of Baqashot, were accepted by the mainstream Jerusalem Sephardi community. A further group immigrated to Palestine around 1900, and formed the Ades Synagogue in Nachlaot. This still exists, and is the main Aleppo rite synagogue in Israel, though its membership now includes Asiatic Jews of all groups, especially Turkish Jews. There is also a large Syrian community in
Holon Holon ( he, חוֹלוֹן ) is a city on the central coastal strip of Israel, south of Tel Aviv. Holon is part of the metropolitan Gush Dan area. In it had a population of . Holon has the second-largest industrial zone in Israel, after Haifa ...
and Bat Yam. Many Jews fled from Syria to Palestine during the anti-Jewish riots of 1947. After that, the Syrian government clamped down and allowed no emigration, though some Jews left illicitly. In the last two decades, some emigration has been allowed, mostly to America, though some have since left America for Israel, under the leadership of Rabbi Abraham Hamra. The older generation from prior to the establishment of the Israeli state retains little or no Syrian ethnic identity of its own and is well integrated into mainstream Israeli society. The most recent wave is integrating at different levels, with some concentrating on integration in Israel and others retaining closer ties with their kin in New York and Mexico. There is a ''Merkaz 'Olami le-Moreshet Yahadut Aram Tsoba'' (World Center for the Heritage of Aleppo Jewry) in
Tel Aviv Tel Aviv-Yafo ( he, תֵּל־אָבִיב-יָפוֹ, translit=Tēl-ʾĀvīv-Yāfō ; ar, تَلّ أَبِيب – يَافَا, translit=Tall ʾAbīb-Yāfā, links=no), often referred to as just Tel Aviv, is the most populous city in the G ...
, which publishes books of Syrian Jewish interest.


Britain

The main settlement of Syrian Jews was in
Manchester Manchester () is a city in Greater Manchester, England. It had a population of 552,000 in 2021. It is bordered by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east, and the neighbouring city of Salford to the west. The ...
, where they joined the local Spanish and Portuguese synagogues, which had a mixed community that included North African, Turkish, Egyptian and Iraqi as well as Syrian Jews. This community founded two synagogues; one (''Shaare Tephillah'') in north central Manchester, which has since moved to Salford, and the other (''Shaare Hayim'') on Queenston Road in West Didsbury, in the southern suburbs. A breakaway synagogue (''Shaare Sedek'') was later formed on Old Lansdowne Road with more of a Syrian flavor; it and the Queenston Road congregation later merged, while retaining both buildings. They remained known as the "Lansdowne Road synagogue" and the "Queen's Road synagogue", after the names those streets bore in the 1930s. While there are still Sephardim in the Manchester area, a number have left for communities in the Americas. The ''Sha'are Sedek'' synagogue has since been sold, and a new synagogue with the same name has been opened in Hale, to be closer to the current centers of the Sephardic and general Jewish populations.


United States

Syrian Jews first immigrated to New York in 1892. The first Syrian Jew to arrive was Jacob Abraham Dwek, along with Ezra Abraham Sitt. They initially lived on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Later settlements were in Bensonhurst, Midwood, Flatbush, and along Ocean Parkway in
Gravesend Gravesend is a town in northwest Kent, England, situated 21 miles (35 km) east-southeast of Charing Cross (central London) on the south bank of the River Thames and opposite Tilbury in Essex. Located in the diocese of Rochester, it is ...
, Brooklyn. These Brooklyn residents spend the summers in
Deal A deal, or deals may refer to: Places United States * Deal, New Jersey, a borough * Deal, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community * Deal Lake, New Jersey Elsewhere * Deal Island (Tasmania), Australia * Deal, Kent, a town in England * Deal, a ...
, New Jersey. Many of the older residents have a third home in the Aventura, Florida to escape the cold weather. There had been a further wave of immigration from Syria in 1992, when the Syrian government under
Hafez al-Assad Hafez al-Assad ', , (, 6 October 1930 – 10 June 2000) was a Syrian statesman and military officer who served as President of Syria from taking power in 1971 until his death in 2000. He was also Prime Minister of Syria from 1970 to 1 ...
began allowing emigration of Jews.
Jerry Seinfeld Jerome Allen Seinfeld ( ; born April 29, 1954) is an American stand-up comedian, actor, writer, and producer. He is best known for playing a semi-fictionalized version of himself in the sitcom '' Seinfeld'', which he created and wrote with La ...
, comedian, is of Syrian Jewish descent from his mother's side. Her family identified their nationality as Turkish when they emigrated to the United States in 1917.


Argentina

Argentina has the 3rd largest Syrian Jewish community after Israel and United States. The largest Jewish community is in the capital
Buenos Aires Buenos Aires ( or ; ), officially the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires ( es, link=no, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), is the capital and primate city of Argentina. The city is located on the western shore of the Río de la Plata, on South ...
. The Sephardim, and especially the Syrians, are a sizeable community. Syrian Jews are most visible in the
Once Once means a one-time occurrence. Once may refer to: Music * ''Once'' (Pearl Jam song), a 1991 song from the album ''Ten'' * ''Once'' (Roy Harper album), a 1990 album by Roy Harper * ''Once'' (The Tyde album), a 2001 debut album by The Tyd ...
district, where there are many community schools and temples. For some decades there has been a good-natured rivalry between the ''Shami'' ( Damascene) community of "Shaare Tefila (Pasito)" synagogue and the ''Halebi'' ( Aleppan) community of "Sucath David" across the street. The most influential rabbinic authority was Rabbi Isaac Chehebar from the "Yessod Hadat" congregation on Lavalle street; he was consulted from all across the globe, and had an influential role in the recovery of parts of the ''
Aleppo Codex The Aleppo Codex ( he, כֶּתֶר אֲרָם צוֹבָא, romanized: , lit. 'Crown of Aleppo') is a medieval bound manuscript of the Hebrew Bible. The codex was written in the city of Tiberias in the tenth century CE (circa 920) under the ...
''. There are many kosher butchers and restaurants catering to the community. There were important communities in
Villa Crespo Villa Crespo is a middle class neighborhood in Buenos Aires, Argentina, located in the geographical center of the city. It had a population of 83,646 people in 2001, and thus currently a population density of 23,235 inhabitants/km2. Villa Crespo c ...
and
Flores Flores is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, a group of islands in the eastern half of Indonesia. Including the Komodo Islands off its west coast (but excluding the Solor Archipelago to the east of Flores), the land area is 15,530.58 km2, and t ...
neighborhoods as well. Many Syrian Jews own clothing stores along Avellaneda avenue in Flores, and there is a community school on Felipe Vallese (formerly Canalejas) street. Some important clothing chains such as Chemea and Tawil, with tens of shops each, were started by Syrian Jews.
Carolina Duer Carolina Raquel Duer (born 5 August 1978) is an Argentine boxer and former world champion. She formerly held the International Boxing Federation (IBF) bantamweight title, the World Boxing Organization (WBO) bantamweight, and earlier the WBO supe ...
is an Argentine-Syrian Jewish world champion boxer.


Brazil

The majority of the Syrian community of
Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
come from
Beirut Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
,
Lebanon Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, while Cyprus lie ...
, where most have settled between the late 19th century and the fall of the Ottoman Empire. A lot of the Halabi merchant traders maintained links and resided between Aleppo and Beirut a far back as the 18th century. A later arrival of Syrian Jews to Lebanon took place due to their expulsion from Syria following the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 and the subsequent violent anti-Jewish pogroms perpetrated by their Muslim neighbours. They left Beirut in wake of the first
Lebanese Civil War The Lebanese Civil War ( ar, الحرب الأهلية اللبنانية, translit=Al-Ḥarb al-Ahliyyah al-Libnāniyyah) was a multifaceted armed conflict that took place from 1975 to 1990. It resulted in an estimated 120,000 fatalities a ...
. Most Syrian Jews established themselves in the industrial city of
São Paulo São Paulo (, ; Portuguese for ' Saint Paul') is the most populous city in Brazil, and is the capital of the state of São Paulo, the most populous and wealthiest Brazilian state, located in the country's Southeast Region. Listed by the GaW ...
, being attracted there by the many commercial opportunities it offered. The community became very prosperous, and several of its members are among the wealthiest and the politically and economically most influential families in São Paulo. The community first attended Egyptian synagogues, but later founded their own synagogues, most notably the Beit Yaakov synagogues in the neighbourhoods of Jardins and Higienopolis. The community has its own school and youth movement, and claims a strong Jewish identity and low assimilation rate. The majority of the community affiliates itself institutionally with
Orthodox Judaism Orthodox Judaism is the collective term for the traditionalist and theologically conservative branches of contemporary Judaism. Theologically, it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah, both Written and Oral, as revealed by God to Moses o ...
, though few could be described as personally fully Orthodox. There are approximately 7,000 Syrian Jews in Brazil.


Chile

With its liberal immigration policy, Chile attracted some Syrian Jews, particularly from Damascus, beginning in the late 1800s. Many Syrian Jews also escaped from Syria and Palestine, provinces of the Ottoman Empire during the World War I. At present there are 2,300 Syrian Jews in Chile.


Mexico

There have been Syrian Jews from Damascus and Aleppo in Mexico City since the early years of the 20th century. Originally they worshipped in a private house transformed into a synagogue – Sinagoga Ketana (''Bet Haknesset HaKatan'') located in Calles de Jesús María. The first organized Jewish community in Mexico was Alianza Monte Sinai founded on June 14, 1912, mainly by natives of Damascus (together with a few Sephardi Jews) and led by Isaac Capon. They later founded the first synagogue, Monte Sinaí, on Justo Sierra street in downtown Mexico City, originally led by Rabbi Laniado, which still holds a daily service of mincha (afternoon prayer). The Damascene community also bought the first Jewish burial place in Tacuba street on June 12, 1914, which is in use to this day and has been expanded by the recent purchase of the adjacent land. The Rodfe Sedek synagogue, for Aleppan Jews, was established in 1931, largely through the efforts of Rabbi Mordejay Attie. This synagogue, known also as Knis de Cordoba, is situated at 238 Cordoba Street in the Colonia Roma quarter of Mexico City. At the time this neighborhood was home to the largest concentration of Jews from Aleppo in Mexico City. The first
mikveh Mikveh or mikvah (,  ''mikva'ot'', ''mikvoth'', ''mikvot'', or (Yiddish) ''mikves'', lit., "a collection") is a bath used for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism to achieve ritual purity. Most forms of ritual impurity can be purifi ...
(ritual bath) in Mexico was established within the Rodfe Sedek synagogue. In 1982 a funeral house was built in the courtyard of the synagogue. Also in the 1930s the members of Monte Sinaí established a large synagogue for Damascene Jews situated at 110 Querétaro Street in the Colonia Roma area. They have welcomed Jews of all backgrounds into their midst, which has allowed tremendous growth over the years. In 1938 Jewish immigrants from Aleppo set up Sociedad de Beneficencia Sedaká u Marpé, which evolved into a separate Jewish community: since 1984 it has been known as Comunidad Maguen David. Monte Sinai and Maguen David are now the largest Jewish communities in
Mexico Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the southern portion of North America. It is borders of Mexico, bordered to the north by the United States; to the so ...
, having more than 30 synagogues, a community center and a school each, with Maguen David having at least 5 schools and plans for more (Colegio Hebreo Maguen David, Yeshiva Keter Torah, Beit Yaakov, Emek HaTorah, Colegio Atid and Colegio Or HaJaim).


Panama

Panama Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Co ...
also received a large number of Syrian Jewish immigrants, mostly from Halab (
Aleppo )), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black". , motto = , image_map = , mapsize = , map_caption = , image_map1 = ...
), where they constitute the largest group in Panama's 15,000 strong Jewish Sephardic community. The first wave of immigrants arrived in the late 1940s after riots in Aleppo due to the
Arab–Israeli conflict The Arab–Israeli conflict is an ongoing intercommunal phenomenon involving political tension, military conflicts, and other disputes between Arab countries and Israel, which escalated during the 20th century, but had mostly faded out by th ...
. The community consists of many synagogues all united under its flagship, Shevet Ahim Synagogue, where their late Chief Rabbi Zion Levy officiated. The community maintains close contact with their counterparts in North America as well as Israel. In his later years, Rabbi Levy oversaw the construction of new synagogues in Panama City and worked for smooth relations with the country's Arab and Muslim communities. He frequently phoned the country's imam for a talk. By the time of his death, the Shevet Ahim community numbered 10,000 Jews, 6,000 of whom are Torah-observant. The community now includes several synagogues, mikvahs, three Jewish schools, a yeshiva, a kollel, and a girls' seminary, along with several kosher restaurants and supermarkets.


Jamaica

There is a large community of Lebanese Jamaicans, estimated at about 20,000, a number of whom remain practicing Jews to this day. Studies have estimated that there are over 400,000 descendants of
Jamaican Jews The history of the Jews in Jamaica predominantly dates back to migrants from Spain and Portugal. Starting in 1309, many Jews began fleeing from Spain because of the persecution of the Holy Inquisition. When the English captured Jamaica from Spa ...
in Jamaica.


Halabi/Shami divide in diaspora

As Syrian Jews migrated to the New World and established themselves, a divide frequently persisted between those with roots in Aleppo (the Halabi Jews, alternately spelled Halebi or Chalabi) and Damascus (the Shami Jews), which had been the two main centers of Jewish life in Syria. This split persists to the present day, with each community maintaining some separate cultural institutions and organizations, and to a lesser-extent, a preference for in-group marriage.


Traditions and customs


Liturgy

There exists a fragment of the old Aleppo prayer book for the High Holy Days, published in
Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400  ...
in 1527, and a second edition, starting with the High Holy Days but covering the whole year, in 1560. This represents the liturgy of the '' Musta'arabim'' (native Arabic-speaking Jews) as distinct from that of the Sephardim proper (immigrants from Spain and Portugal): it recognizably belongs to the "Sephardic" family of rites in the widest sense, but is different from any liturgy used today. For more detail, see Old Aleppo ritual. Following the immigration of Jews from Spain following the expulsion, a compromise liturgy evolved containing elements from the customs of both communities, but with the Sephardic element taking an ever-larger share. In Syria, as in North African countries, there was no attempt to print a Siddur containing the actual usages of the community, as this would not generally be commercially viable. Major publishing centres, principally
Livorno Livorno () is a port city on the Ligurian Sea on the western coast of Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Livorno, having a population of 158,493 residents in December 2017. It is traditionally known in English as Leghorn (pronou ...
, and later
Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...
, would produce standard "Sephardic" prayer books suitable for use in all communities, and particular communities such as the Syrians would order these in bulk, preserving any special usages by oral tradition. (For example, Ḥacham Abraham Ḥamwi of Aleppo commissioned a series of prayer-books from Livorno, which were printed in 1878, but even these were "pan-Sephardic" in character, though they contained some notes about the specific "minhag Aram Tsoba".) As details of the oral tradition faded from memory, the liturgy in use came ever nearer to the "Livorno" standard. In the early years of the 20th century, this "Sephardic" rite was almost universal in Syria. The only exception (in Aleppo) was a "Musta'arabi"
minyan In Judaism, a ''minyan'' ( he, מניין \ מִנְיָן ''mīnyān'' , lit. (noun) ''count, number''; pl. ''mīnyānīm'' ) is the quorum of ten Jewish adults required for certain religious obligations. In more traditional streams of Ju ...
at the
Central Synagogue of Aleppo The Central Synagogue of Aleppo, ( he, בית הכנסת המרכזי בחאלֶבּ, ar, كنيس حلب المركزي, Kanīs Ḥalab al-Markazī), also known as the Great Synagogue of Aleppo, Joab's Synagogue or Al-Bandara Synagogue ( ar, ...
, but the liturgy of this group only differed from the "Sephardic" by a few textual variants and the order of some of the hymns. The liturgy of
Damascus )), is an adjective which means "spacious". , motto = , image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg , image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg , seal_type = Seal , map_caption = , ...
differed from that of Aleppo in some details, mostly because of its greater proximity to the Holy Land. Some of the laws specific to Eretz Yisrael are regarded as extending to Damascus, and the city had ties both to the
Safed Safed (known in Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an elev ...
Kabbalists Kabbalah ( he, קַבָּלָה ''Qabbālā'', literally "reception, tradition") is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought in Jewish mysticism. A traditional Kabbalist is called a Mekubbal ( ''Məqūbbāl'' "receiver"). The defin ...
and to the Jerusalem Sephardic community. The liturgy now used in Syrian communities round the world is textually speaking Oriental-Sephardic. That is to say, it is based on the Spanish rite as varied by the customs of
Isaac Luria Isaac ben Solomon Luria Ashkenazi (1534Fine 2003, p24/ref> – July 25, 1572) ( he, יִצְחָק בן שלמה לוּרְיָא אשכנזי ''Yitzhak Ben Sh'lomo Lurya Ashkenazi''), commonly known in Jewish religious circles as "Ha'ARI" (mean ...
, and resembles those in use in Greek, Turkish and North African Jewish communities. In earlier decades some communities and individuals used " Edot ha-Mizraḥ" prayer-books which contained a slightly different text, based on the Baghdadi rite, as these were more commonly available, leaving any specifically Syrian usages to be perpetuated by oral tradition. The nearest approach to a current official prayer book is entitled ''Kol Ya'akob'', but many other editions exist and there is still disagreement on some textual variants. The musical customs of Syrian communities are very distinctive, as many of the prayers are chanted to the melodies of the
pizmonim ''Pizmonim'' (Hebrew פזמונים, singular ''pizmon'') are traditional Jewish songs and melodies sung with the intention of praising God as well as learning certain aspects of traditional religious teachings. They are sung throughout religiou ...
, according to a complicated annual rota designed to ensure that the maqam (musical mode) used suits the mood of the festival or of the Torah reading for the week. ''See Syrian Cantors and the Weekly Maqam.''


Pizmonim

Syrian Jews have a large repertoire of hymns, sung on social and ceremonial occasions such as
weddings A wedding is a ceremony where two people are united in marriage. Wedding traditions and customs vary greatly between cultures, ethnic groups, religions, countries, and social classes. Most wedding ceremonies involve an exchange of marriage v ...
and bar mitzvahs. Pizmonim are also used in the prayers of
Shabbat Shabbat (, , or ; he, שַׁבָּת, Šabbāṯ, , ) or the Sabbath (), also called Shabbos (, ) by Ashkenazim, is Judaism's day of rest on the seventh day of the week—i.e., Saturday. On this day, religious Jews remember the biblical stori ...
and holidays. Some of these are ancient and others were composed more recently as adaptations of popular Arabic songs; sometimes they are written or commissioned for particular occasions, and contain coded allusions to the name of the person honoured. There is a standard Pizmonim book called "Shir uShbaha Hallel veZimrah", edited by Cantor Gabriel A. Shrem under the supervision of the Sephardic Heritage Foundation, in which the hymns are classified according to the musical mode ( maqam) to which the melody belongs. As time passes, more and more pizmonim are getting lost, and therefore efforts are being made by the Sephardic Pizmonim Project, under the leadership of Dr. David M. Betesh, to preserve as many pizmonim as possible. A website to facilitate its preservation was set up a
Pizmonim.com


Baqashot

It was a custom in Syrian Jewish communities (and some others), to sing Baqashot (petitionary hymns), before the morning service on
Shabbat Shabbat (, , or ; he, שַׁבָּת, Šabbāṯ, , ) or the Sabbath (), also called Shabbos (, ) by Ashkenazim, is Judaism's day of rest on the seventh day of the week—i.e., Saturday. On this day, religious Jews remember the biblical stori ...
. In the winter months, the full corpus of 66 hymns is sung, finishing with
Adon Olam Adon Olam ( he, אֲדוֹן עוֹלָם; "Eternal Lord" or "Sovereign of the Universe") is a hymn in the Jewish liturgy. It has been a regular part of the daily and Shabbat ( Sabbath) liturgy since the 15th century.Nulman, Macy, ''Encyclopedia ...
and Kaddish. This service generally lasts about four hours, from 3:00am to 7:00am. This tradition still obtains full force in the Ades Synagogue in Jerusalem. In other communities such as New York, it is less widespread; though the hymns are sung on other occasions.


Pronunciation of Hebrew

The Syrian pronunciation of Hebrew is similar to that of other Mizrahi communities and is influenced both by Sephardi Hebrew and by the Syrian dialect of Levantine Arabic. The Syrian pronunciation of Hebrew is less archaic than the Iraqi Hebrew of
Iraqi Jews The history of the Jews in Iraq ( he, יְהוּדִים בָּבְלִים, ', ; ar, اليهود العراقيون, ) is documented from the time of the Babylonian captivity c. 586 BC. Iraqi Jews constitute one of the world's oldest and mos ...
and closer to standard Sephardic Hebrew. That affects especially the interdentals. Nevertheless, Syrian and Iraqi Hebrew are very closely related because of their location and geographic proximity, as is the case with most eastern Jewish communities in the Arabic world other than
Yemenite Jews Yemenite Jews or Yemeni Jews or Teimanim (from ''Yehudei Teman''; ar, اليهود اليمنيون) are those Jews who live, or once lived, in Yemen, and their descendants maintaining their customs. Between June 1949 and September 1950, th ...
. Particular features are as follows: * (''
Bet Black Entertainment Television (acronym BET) is an American basic cable channel targeting African-American audiences. It is owned by the CBS Entertainment Group unit of Paramount Global via BET Networks and has offices in New York City, Los ...
'' without '' dagesh'') is traditionally , but in Israel, it is often now under the influence of Israeli Hebrew. * (''
Gimel Gimel is the third letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Gīml , Hebrew Gimel , Aramaic Gāmal , Syriac Gāmal , and Arabic (in alphabetical order; fifth in spelling order). Its sound value in the original Phoenician and in all ...
'' without ''dagesh'') is often pronounced , like Arabic غ (
voiced velar fricative The voiced velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound that is used in various spoken languages. It is not found in Modern English but existed in Old English. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , ...
). * ('' Dalet'' without ''dagesh'') is pronounced as in Israeli Hebrew, not as in Yemenite Hebrew. * ('' He'' with '' mappiq'') is often pronounced with a very short postpended schwa . * ('' Waw'') is pronounced , not . * ('' Heth'') is pronounced , like Arabic ح ( voiceless pharyngeal fricative). * ('' Teth'') is pronounced , like Arabic ط (
pharyngealized Pharyngealization is a secondary articulation of consonants or vowels by which the pharynx or epiglottis is constricted during the articulation of the sound. IPA symbols In the International Phonetic Alphabet, pharyngealization can be indic ...
voiceless alveolar plosive The voiceless alveolar, dental and postalveolar plosives (or stops) are types of consonantal sounds used in almost all spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents voiceless dental, alveolar, and posta ...
). * (''
Kaph Kaph (also spelled kaf) is the eleventh letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician kāp , Hebrew kāf , Aramaic kāp , Syriac kāp̄ , and Arabic kāf (in abjadi order). The Phoenician letter gave rise to the Greek kappa (Κ), ...
'' without ''dagesh'') is often pronounced , like Arabic خ (
voiceless velar fricative The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in some dialects of English, most notably in Scottish English, e.g. in ''loc ...
). * ('' Ayin'') is pronounced , like Arabic ع (
voiced pharyngeal fricative The voiced pharyngeal approximant or fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is ?\. Epiglott ...
). * ('' Tsade'') is pronounced , like Arabic ص (pharyngealized
voiceless alveolar fricative The voiceless alveolar fricatives are a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are at lea ...
), like English voiceless "s" but with the tongue a little retracted. * ('' Qoph'') is supposed to be , like Classical Arabic ق (
voiceless uvular stop The voiceless uvular plosive or stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is pronounced like a voiceless velar plosive , except that the tongue makes contact not on the soft palate but on the uvula. The symbol in th ...
) but sometimes slips historically into , a
glottal stop The glottal plosive or stop is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents thi ...
, as in colloquial Syrian Arabic, and today into , in conformity with English and Israeli Hebrew. * ('' Taw'' without ''dagesh'') is pronounced as in Israeli Hebrew, not as in the Yemenite and Iraqi pronunciations. The retention of distinct emphatic sounds such as and differentiates Syrian pronunciation from many other Sephardic/Mizrahi pronunciations, which have failed to maintain these phonemic or phonological distinctions, such as between and . Vowels are pronounced as in most other Sephardi and Mizrahi traditions. For example, there is little or no distinction between
pataḥ Pataḥ ( he, פַּתָּח ', , Biblical Hebrew: ') is a Hebrew niqqud vowel sign represented by a horizontal line underneath a letter. In modern Hebrew, it indicates the phoneme which is close to the " sound in the English word ''far'' ...
and qamats gadol () or between segol, tsere and vocal sheva (). '' Ḥiriq'' is sometimes reduced to or in an unstressed closed syllable or near an emphatic or guttural consonant. A semivocalic sound is heard before ''pataḥ ganuv'' (''pataḥ'' coming between a long vowel and a final guttural): thus ''ruaḥ'' (spirit) is pronounced , and ''siaḥ'' (speech) is pronounced .


Judaeo-Arabic dialect

Jews in Syria had distinctive dialects of Judaeo-Arabic. They are not known to have any current speakers. Syrian Jews had a distinctive traditional sharḥ (translation of the Bible into Syrian Judaeo-Arabic), which was used in teaching children, though not for any liturgical purpose. One version of this was printed in about 1900: another (from the so-called Avishur Manuscript) was printed by the ''Merkaz Olami le-Moreshet Yahadut Aram Tsoba'' in 2006, with pages of translation facing pages from the "Jerusalem Crown". This print contains the Torah only, but volumes for the rest of the Bible are planned. Many Syrian Jews have the custom of reciting each paragraph of the Passover Haggadah first in Hebrew and then in Judaeo-Arabic.


Aleppo Codex

The
Aleppo Codex The Aleppo Codex ( he, כֶּתֶר אֲרָם צוֹבָא, romanized: , lit. 'Crown of Aleppo') is a medieval bound manuscript of the Hebrew Bible. The codex was written in the city of Tiberias in the tenth century CE (circa 920) under the ...
, now known in Hebrew as ''Keter Aram Tsoba'', is the oldest and most famous manuscript of the Bible. Written in
Tiberias Tiberias ( ; he, טְבֶרְיָה, ; ar, طبريا, Ṭabariyyā) is an Israeli city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's F ...
in the year 920, and annotated by Aaron ben Asher, it has become the most authoritative Biblical text in Jewish culture. The most famous halachic authority to rely on it was
Maimonides Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
, in his exposition of the laws governing the writing of Torah scrolls in his codification of Jewish law (
Mishneh Torah The ''Mishneh Torah'' ( he, מִשְׁנֵה תּוֹרָה, , repetition of the Torah), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' ( he, ספר יד החזקה, , book of the strong hand, label=none), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law ('' ...
). After its completion, the Codex was brought to Jerusalem. Toward the end of the 11th century, it was stolen and taken to Egypt, where it was redeemed by the Jewish community of Cairo. At the end of the 14th century the Codex was taken to Aleppo, Syria (called by the Jews Aram Zobah, the biblical name of part of Syria)—this is the origin of the manuscript's modern name. For the next five centuries, it was kept closely guarded in the basement of the
Central Synagogue of Aleppo The Central Synagogue of Aleppo, ( he, בית הכנסת המרכזי בחאלֶבּ, ar, كنيس حلب المركزي, Kanīs Ḥalab al-Markazī), also known as the Great Synagogue of Aleppo, Joab's Synagogue or Al-Bandara Synagogue ( ar, ...
, and was considered the community's greatest treasure. Scholars from round the world would consult it to check the accuracy of their Torah scrolls. In the modern era the community would occasionally allow academics, such as
Umberto Cassuto Umberto Cassuto, also known as Moshe David Cassuto (16 September 1883 – 19 December 1951), was an Italian historian, a rabbi, and a scholar of the Hebrew Bible and Ugaritic literature, in the University of Florence, then at the University ...
, access to the Codex, but would not permit it to be reproduced photographically or otherwise. The Codex remained in the keeping of the Aleppo Jewish community until the anti-Jewish riots of December 1947, during which the ancient synagogue where it was kept was broken into and burned. The Codex itself disappeared. In 1958, the Keter was smuggled into Israel by Murad Faham and wife Sarina, and presented to the President of the State, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi. Following its arrival, it was found that parts of the Codex, including most of the Torah, had been lost. The Codex was entrusted to the keeping of the Ben-Zvi Institute and the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI; he, הַאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה הַעִבְרִית בִּירוּשָׁלַיִם) is a public research university based in Jerusalem, Israel. Co-founded by Albert Einstein and Dr. Chaim Weiz ...
, though the Porat Yosef Yeshivah has argued that, as the spiritual heir of the Aleppo community, it was the legitimate guardian. Some time after the arrival of the Codex,
Mordechai Breuer Mordechai Breuer ( he, מָרְדְּכַי בְּרוֹיֶאר; May 14, 1921 – February 24, 2007) was a German-born Israeli Orthodox rabbi. He was one of the world's leading experts on Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), and especially of the text of the ...
began the monumental work of reconstructing the lost sections, on the basis of other well-known ancient manuscripts. Since then a few other leaves have been found. Modern editions of the Bible, such as the
Hebrew University The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI; he, הַאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה הַעִבְרִית בִּירוּשָׁלַיִם) is a public university, public research university based in Jerusalem, Israel. Co-founded by Albert Einstein ...
's "Jerusalem Crown" and Bar-Ilan University's "Mikraot Gedolot ha-Keter", have been based on the Codex. The missing sections have been reconstructed on the basis of cross-references in the
Masoretic Text The Masoretic Text (MT or 𝕸; he, נֻסָּח הַמָּסוֹרָה, Nūssāḥ Hammāsōrā, lit. 'Text of the Tradition') is the authoritative Hebrew and Aramaic text of the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) in Rabbinic Judaism. ...
of surviving sections, of the notes of scholars who have consulted the Codex and of other manuscripts. The codex is now kept in the Israel Museum, in the building known as " The Shrine of The Book." It lies there along with the
Dead Sea Scrolls The Dead Sea Scrolls (also the Qumran Caves Scrolls) are ancient Jewish and Hebrew religious manuscripts discovered between 1946 and 1956 at the Qumran Caves in what was then Mandatory Palestine, near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the ...
and many other ancient Jewish relics.


Attitudes to conversion

At the time of the Mahzor Aram Soba of 1527 and 1560, conversions were clearly accepted, as there are blessings in the Mahzor on the rituals of conversions. However, in the early 20th century the Syrian Jewish communities of New York and Buenos Aires adopted rulings designed to discourage intermarriage. The communities would not normally carry out conversions to Judaism, particularly where the conversion is suspected of being for the sake of marriage, or accept such converts from other communities, or the children of mixed marriages or marriages involving such converts. Ben-Zion Meir Hai Uziel, then Sephardi Chief Rabbi of
Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
, was asked to rule on the validity of this ban. He acknowledged the right of the community to refuse to carry out conversions and to regard as invalid conversions carried out by other communities in which marriage is a factor. At the same time, he cautioned that persons converted out of genuine conviction and recognized by established rabbinic authorities should not be regarded as non-Jewish, even if they were not allowed to join the Syrian community. The ban is popularly known within the Syrian community as the "edict" or "proclamation" (in Hebrew, '' takkanah''). Every 20 years or so, the edict is reaffirmed by all leaders and rabbis of the community, often with extra clauses. A full list is as follows: *Buenos Aires, 1937 (R. David Setton) *New York, 1935 (Hacham Hayim Tawil) *New York, 1946 "Clarification" *New York, 1972 "Affirmation" *New York, 1984 "Reaffirmation" *New York, 2006 "Reaffirmation" There has been some argument as to whether the ruling amounts to a blanket ban on all converts or whether sincere converts from other communities, not motivated by marriage, may be accepted. The relevant sentence in the English language summary is "no male or female member of our community has the right to intermarry with non-Jews; this law covers conversions which we consider to be fictitious and valueless". In the 1946 "Clarification" a comma appears after the word "conversions", which makes it appear that ''all'' conversions are "fictitious and valueless", though this understanding is contested, and there is no equivalent change in the Hebrew text. However, there are exceptions to the rule, such as conversions for the sake of adoptions always being permitted. Additionally, communal rabbis (such as the late Chief Rabbi Jacob S. Kassin) have occasionally recognized conversions carried out by certain rabbis, such as members of the Chief Rabbinate of Israel. Nonetheless, these rulings strongly discourage people from converting into the Syrian Jewish community as they require them to show commitment to Judaism above and beyond what is required by the normative rabbinical laws of conversion. Supporters of the edict argue that it has been demographically successful, in that the rate of intermarriage with non-Jews in the Syrian community is believed to be less than 3%, as opposed to anything up to 50% in the general American Jewish population. Opponents argue that this fact is not a result of the edict, but of widespread attendance at Orthodox day schools, and that a similarly low rate of intermarriage is found among other Orthodox day-schooled Jews despite the absence of any equivalent of the edict.


Cuisine

As in most Arab and
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on ...
countries, Syrian Jewish cuisine is fairly similar to other types of Syrian cuisine (which in turn reflect some Turkish influence), although some dishes have different names among Jewish members. This is partly because of the eastern Mediterranean origins of Judaism as such and partly because the similarity of the
Islamic dietary laws Islamic dietary laws are dietary laws that Muslims follow. Islamic jurisprudence specifies which foods are '' '' (, "lawful") and which are '' '' (, "unlawful"). The dietary laws are found in the Quran, the holy book of Islam, as well as in col ...
to the
Kashrut (also or , ) is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jewish people are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher ( in English, yi, כּשר), fr ...
laws. Some dishes of Spanish and Italian origin have become part of the repertoire through the influence of the Sephardi and ''Franco'' waves of immigration: a few of these have become part of the wider Syrian cuisine. Syrian (and Egyptian) recipes remain popular in Syrian Jewish communities around the world. There are traditions linking different dishes to the Jewish festivals. Popular dishes are as follows: *Riz: Mixture of white rice and short cut noodles *Hamid: Soup made with lemon juice, parsley, mint, onion, potato, celery and garlic *Fetteh: Chickpea broth cooked with Tequesquite. Often eaten with pita and yoghurt *Kibbeh riz: Mashed cooked rice and ground beef shaped into a patty and fried *'' Kibbeh'' Nabulsieh: minced meat with pine nuts and pomegranate seeds in a
burghul Bulgur (from tr, bulgur, itself from fa, بلغور, bolġur (bolghur)/balġur (balghur), groats ), also riffoth (from biblical he, ריפות, riffoth) and burghul (from ar, برغل, burġul ), is a cracked wheat dish found ...
torpedo shaped fried shell often served with peas *''Kibbeh ħamda'': Small kibbeh balls used in soups *''Kibbeh bisfarjal'': Same as above but with
quince The quince (; ''Cydonia oblonga'') is the sole member of the genus ''Cydonia'' in the Malinae subtribe (which also contains apples and pears, among other fruits) of the Rosaceae family. It is a deciduous tree that bears hard, aromatic bright ...
instead of potatoes; eaten on (
Rosh Hashanah Rosh HaShanah ( he, רֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה, , literally "head of the year") is the Jewish New Year. The biblical name for this holiday is Yom Teruah (, , lit. "day of shouting/blasting") It is the first of the Jewish High Holy Days (, , ...
) *''Kibbeh Yakhnieh'': Meat balls with chick peas and spinach *''Kibbeh bisfiha'': Meat burgers with eggplant *''Fawleh blahmeh'' or ''Loubieh blahmeh'': Lamb or veal cubes with string beans or black-eyed peas *''Ijjeh'' or ''eggah'': Egg dish, similar to a Spanish omelette with
parsley Parsley, or garden parsley (''Petroselinum crispum'') is a species of flowering plant in the family Apiaceae that is native to the central and eastern Mediterranean region (Sardinia, Lebanon, Israel, Cyprus, Turkey, southern Italy, Greece, ...
, potato or cheese *''Ijjeh blahmeh'': Fried meat burgers with eggs served with lemon and radishes *'' Muħshi Badinjan'': Stuffed eggplant with rice, meat, and chickpeas *'' Muħshi Kousa'': Stuffed zucchini with rice, meat, nana mint, and lemon *'' Yaprak'': Stuffed vine leaves with rice and meat *''
Kebab Kebab (, ; ar, كباب, link=no, Latn, ar, kabāb, ; tr, kebap, link=no, ) or kabob (North American) is a type of cooked meat dish that originates from cuisines of the Middle East. Many variants of the category are popular around the wor ...
'': Meat balls (sometimes with cherries or pomegranate paste) *Chicken ''
sofrito (Spanish, ), (Catalan), (Italian, ), or (Portuguese, ) is a basic preparation in Mediterranean, Latin American, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese cooking. It typically consists of aromatic ingredients cut into small pieces and sautéed ...
'': Chicken sautéed with lemon juice, turmeric, and cardamom *'' beida bi-lemoune'': Chicken soup mixed with an egg and lemon *'' Dfeena'': Shabbat meat and bean stew equivalent to
cholent Cholent and other Sabbath stews ( yi, טשאָלנט, tsholnt ''or'' tshulnt) are traditional Jewish stews. It is usually simmered overnight for 10–12 hours or more, and eaten for lunch on Shabbat (the Sabbath). Shabbat stews were develo ...
*''Ḥammin'' eggs: Hard-boiled eggs stained brown by being baked with ''dfeena'' or boiled with onion skins, sometimes adding tea leaves or coffee grounds *'' Laħmajeen'' (or ''Laħmabajeen''): Meat (sometimes with pomegranate paste or prune juice) on a small, round pastry base *''Maoudeh'': A stew of fried cube-shaped potatoes with lamb, beef, or chicken meat *'' Matambre'': Boiled squash, cheese, eggs, and pieces of pita *''Mfarraket al-ful'': Cold minced beef with fava beans and scrambled eggs (for Shabbat) *'' Sambousak'': Small half-moon pastry filled with cheese or meat *''
Sahlab Salep, also spelled sahlep or sahlab,( tr, salep, sahlep; fa, ثعلب, ; ar, سحلب, ; al, salep; az, səhləb; he, סַחְלָבּ, ; el, σαλέπι, ; Serbian, Macedonian, Bulgarian and Bosnian: салеп, ''salep'') is a flour m ...
'': Hot milk with starch and sugar often served with cinnamon *''Kousa b'jibn'': Squash baked with cheese *'' M'jadra'': Rice and lentil or burghul and lentil kedgeree *'' Tabbouleh'':
Burghul Bulgur (from tr, bulgur, itself from fa, بلغور, bolġur (bolghur)/balġur (balghur), groats ), also riffoth (from biblical he, ריפות, riffoth) and burghul (from ar, برغل, burġul ), is a cracked wheat dish found ...
salad with vine leaves *''Bazirjan or Muhammara'': Burghul crushed wheat with pomegranate paste or prune juice *'' Shakshouka'' or ''Beid bifranji'': Boiled tomato puree with onion and eggs *''Beid blaban'': Boiled yogurt with garlic, nana mint, and scrambled eggs *'' Ka'ak'': Aniseed-flavored bracelets with sesame seeds *''Ghreibe'': Shortbread biscuits, often in bracelet form *'' Ma'amoul'': Shortbread pastries with date or nut fillings (the Jewish version differs from the Arab in not using semolina flour) *'' Kanafeh mabroumeh or ballorieh'': Fine threads of shredded filo dough filled with pistachios or ricotta *Orange
Passover Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holiday that celebrates the Biblical story of the Israelites escape from slavery in Egypt, which occurs on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Nisan, the first month of Aviv, or spring. ...
cakes derived from Spanish recipes through Sephardic immigration *Coconut jam: (used at Passover) *'' Sharab al-loz'': Iced drink made from almond syrup; generally a summer drink, but also used before
Yom Kippur Yom Kippur (; he, יוֹם כִּפּוּר, , , ) is the holiest day in Judaism and Samaritanism. It occurs annually on the 10th of Tishrei, the first month of the Hebrew calendar. Primarily centered on atonement and repentance, the day' ...
. Additionally, it is most commonly shared at happy occasions such as when a couple gets engaged.


See also

* Ades Synagogue *
Central Synagogue of Aleppo The Central Synagogue of Aleppo, ( he, בית הכנסת המרכזי בחאלֶבּ, ar, كنيس حلب المركزي, Kanīs Ḥalab al-Markazī), also known as the Great Synagogue of Aleppo, Joab's Synagogue or Al-Bandara Synagogue ( ar, ...
* History of Syria * Persecution of Jews * Syrian Cantors * Weekly Maqam


References


Sources


General

*Abadi, J.F., ''A Fistful of Lentils: Syrian-Jewish Recipes from Grandma Fritzie's Kitchen'': Harvard 2002. Hardback: *Ades, Abraham, ''Derech Ere"tz'': Bene Berak 1990 *Assis, Yom Tov, Frenkel, Miriam and Harel, Yaron (eds.), ''Aleppo Studies. The Jews of Aleppo: their History and Culture'' (Jerusalem, vol. 1 2009; vol 2 2013) ebrew and English*Collins, Lydia, ''The Sephardim of Manchester: Pedigrees and Pioneers'': Manchester 2006 *Dobrinsky, Herbert C.: ''A treasury of Sephardic laws and customs: the ritual practices of Syrian, Moroccan, Judeo-Spanish and Spanish and Portuguese Jews of North America.'' Revised ed. Hoboken, N.J. : KTAV; New York, N.Y. : Yeshiva Univ. Press, 1988. *Dweck, Poopa and Michael J. Cohen, ''Aromas of Aleppo: The Legendary Cuisine of Syrian Jews'': HarperCollins 2007, , *Harel, Yaron, ''Sifre Ere"tz: ha-Sifrut ha-Toranit shel Ḥachme Aram Tsoba'' (The Books of Aleppo: Torah Literature of the Rabbis of Aleppo): Jerusalem 199
summarized here
*Harel, Yaron (ed.), ''Syrian Jewry: History, Culture and Identity'': Ramat Gan 2015 (Hebrew and English) *Idelsohn, A.Z., ''Phonographierte Gesänge und Aussprachsproben des Hebräischen der jemenitischen, persischen und syrischen Juden'': Vienna 1917 * *Kligman, Mark, ''Maqam and Liturgy: Ritual, Music and Aesthetics of Syrian Jews in Brooklyn'', Detroit 2009 *Laniado, David Tsion, ''La-Qedoshim asher ba-are"ts'': Jerusalem 1935 repr. 1980 *Laniado, Samuel, ''Debash ve-ḤALAB al-leshonech'': Jerusalem 1998/9 (Hebrew) *Roden, Claudia, ''A New Book of Middle Eastern Food'': London 1986 *Roden, Claudia, ''The Book of Jewish Food'': New York 1997, London 1999 *Sethon, Menasheh, ''Kelale Diqduq ha-Qeriah'', Aleppo 1914, printed in Ḥamwi,
Peh Eliyahu
' pp. 391–400 *Shelemay, Kay Kaufman, ''Let Jasmine Rain Down'', Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology: 1998. Hardback: , Paperback: . *Smouha, Patricia, ''Middle Eastern Cooking'', London 1955 ASIN: B0000CJAHX *Sutton, David, ''Aleppo: City of Scholars'': Artscroll 2005 (partly based on Laniado, ''La-Qedoshim asher ba-are"ts'') *Sutton, Joseph, ''Aleppo Chronicles: the Story of the Unique Sepharadeem of the Ancient Near East – in their Own Words'': Brooklyn 1988 *Sutton, Joseph, ''Magic Carpet: Aleppo in Flatbush'': Brooklyn 1979 *Zenner, Walter P., ''A Global Community: The Jews from Aleppo, Syria'': Wayne State University Press 2000 *Zenner, Walter P., "The Ethnography of Diaspora: Studying Syrian Jewry,"
Marshall Sklare Award The Marshall Sklare Award is an annual honor of the Association for the Social Scientific Study of Jewry (ASSJ). The ASSJ seeks to recognize "a senior scholar who has made a significant scholarly contribution to the social scientific study of Jewry. ...
address, 1997


Prayer books


Historic

*''Maḥzor Aram Tsoba'': Venice 1527, 1560 *''Bet El'' (seliḥot and morning service), Abraham Ḥamwi: Livorno 1878 (repr. New York 1982) *''Bet Din'' (Rosh Hashanah), Abraham Ḥamwi: Livorno 1878 (repr. Jerusalem 1986) *''Bet ha-Kapporet'' (Kippur), Abraham Ḥamwi: Livorno 1879 *''Bet Menuha'' (Shabbat), Abraham Ḥamwi: Livorno 1878 *''Bet Oved'' (Daily), Abraham Ḥamwi: Livorno 1878 *''Bet Simḥah'' (Sukkot), Abraham Ḥamwi: Livorno 1879 (repr. Jerusalem 1970) *''Bet ha-Beḥirah'' (Pesaḥ), Abraham Ḥamwi: Livorno 1880 (repr. Jerusalem 1985) *''Seder Olat Tamid'' (''minḥah'' and ''arbit'' only): Aleppo 1907 (reflecting the "Musta'arabi" text) *''Olat ha-Shaḥar'': Aleppo 1915 (reflecting the "Sephardic" text) Some reprints of the originals are available today, and many Siddurim today, especially the ''Magen Abraham'' series are heavily influenced by the Livorno prayer books.


Modern

*''Seder Seliḥot'', ed. Shehebar: Jerusalem 1973 *''Bet Yosef ve-Ohel Abraham'': Jerusalem, Manṣur (Hebrew only, based on Baghdadi text) 1974–1980 *''Siddur le-Tish'ah be-Ab'', ed. Shehebar: Jerusalem 1976 *''Mahzor Shelom Yerushalayim'', ed. Albeg: New York, Sephardic Heritage Foundation 1982 *''Siddur Kol Mordechai'', ed. Faham bros: Jerusalem 1984 (''minḥah'' and ''arbit'' only) *''Sha'are Ratson'', ed. Moshe Cohen: Tel Aviv 1988, repr. 2003 ( High Holy Days only) *''Kol Yaakob'', ed. Alouf: New York, Sephardic Heritage Foundation 1990 (Hebrew only; revised edition 1996, Hebrew and English; a new edition is in preparation) *''The Aram Soba Siddur: According to the Sephardic Custom of Aleppo Syria'', Moshe Antebi: Jerusalem, Aram Soba Foundation 1993 (''minḥah'' and ''arbit'' only) *''Orḥot Ḥayim'', ed. Yedid: Jerusalem 1995 (Hebrew only) *''Orot Sephardic Siddur'', Eliezer Toledano: Lakewood, NJ, Orot Inc. (Hebrew and English: Baghdadi text, Syrian variants shown in square brackets) *''Siddur Abodat Haleb / Prayers from the Heart'', Moshe Antebi, Lakewood, NJ: Israel Book Shop, 2002 *''Abir Yaakob'', ed. Haber: Sephardic Press (Hebrew and English, Shabbat only) *''Siddur Ve-ha'arev Na'', ed.
Isaac S.D. Sassoon Isaac S. D. Sassoon (born 1946) is an Sephardic rabbi (hakham), scholar and educator. Hakham Sassoon, who is currently one of the leading scholars in the Sephardic world, was born into the Sassoon family of London and grew up speaking Judeo-Arabi ...
, 2007


External links

{{commons category
World Center for Aleppo (Halab) Jews Traditional Culture

Road From Damascus
'' Tablet Magazine'' * http://pizmonim.org * http://www.dayanofaleppo.com/default.aspx Jewish ethnic groups ** Mizrahi Jews topics Sephardi Jews topics Ethnic groups in the Middle East