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Swedish orthography is the set of rules and conventions used for writing Swedish. The primary authority on Swedish orthography is ''
Svenska Akademiens ordlista ''Svenska Akademiens ordlista'' (, "Word list of the Swedish Academy"), abbreviated SAOL, is a spelling dictionary published every few years by the Swedish Academy. It is a single volume that is considered the final arbiter of Swedish spelling. ...
'' (SAOL), a spelling dictionary published annually by the Swedish Academy. The balance between describing the language and creating norms has changed with the years. Orthography uses three distinct principles:
phonologically Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages or dialects systematically organize their sounds or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a ...
oriented spelling,
morphology Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to: Disciplines *Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts *Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies, ...
-focused spelling, and traditional spelling. Through the history of written Swedish, these principles have been applied to various extents. Swedish spelling was long unregulated, but beginning in the later part of the 1700s, efforts increased to regulate spelling. In 1801, the Swedish Academy commissioned ', a treatise on Swedish spelling by poet Carl Gustaf af Leopold. The goal of the treatise was to create a more homogeneous spelling system, based on traditional spellings. Leopold also aimed to create more phonetic spellings for French loanwords. A later advocate for uniform spelling was Esaias Tegnér Jr.


Alphabet

The Swedish alphabet is a
Latin-script alphabet A Latin-script alphabet (Latin alphabet or Roman alphabet) is an alphabet that uses letters of the Latin script. The 21-letter archaic Latin alphabet and the 23-letter classical Latin alphabet belong to the oldest of this group. The 26-lette ...
with 29 letters, including the modern 26-letter basic Latin alphabet, plus three extra letters : Å, Ä, and Ö. The letters Q, W, and Z are rarely used outside of loanwords and proper names. See Swedish alphabet for a detailed description of the sounds of the letters.


Correspondence between writing and speech

Among phonological (sound-based) written languages such as Swedish, the degree of conformity between the
graphemes In linguistics, a grapheme is the smallest functional unit of a writing system. The word ''grapheme'' is derived and the suffix ''-eme'' by analogy with ''phoneme'' and other names of emic units. The study of graphemes is called '' graphem ...
of writing and phonemes of speech can vary. In Swedish, the written and spoken vowels agree well, but consonants vary significantly more. For example, there are several different graphemes for the  ''sj''-sound (as in ''själ'', ''skäl'', and ''stjäl'') and the ''tj''-sound (as in kära and tjära). This is because Swedish consonants adhere in large part to a traditional orthography, which reflects an older spoken language.


Orthographic principles


Phonologically oriented spelling

Phonologically oriented (sound-oriented) spelling holds that every phoneme should correspond to a single grapheme. An example of pure phonological spelling is the word ''har''. The word's three graphemes, , each correspond to a single phoneme, . In Swedish, phonological spelling is used for vowels, with two exceptions. The most important exception is that the two graphemes and are both used to indicate , and that the grapheme is used for the phonemes and , but also for and . Another exception is in loanwords such as ''bag'' or ''jeep''. Graphemes and phonemes do not correspond as well for consonants as for vowels.


Morphologically oriented spelling

Morphologically oriented spelling dictates that a morpheme is always spelled the same, regardless of pronunciation. For example, this principle indicates that we would spell the word as (from ), even though it is pronounced . This type of spelling is used sometimes, but far from always. For example, ''drift'' is spelled according to pronunciation, even though the morphologically oriented principle would suggest (from the verb ). In older Swedish, the word was spelled , but this changed in the 1906 transition to a more phonetic spelling, in which (from ''god'') became ''gott''. Danish and Norwegian on the other hand have kept the older spelling .


Traditional spelling

Traditional spelling often reflects an older pronunciation. This is frequently the case with the ''sj''-sound, whose phonetic symbol is , and the ''tj''-sound, whose symbol is . The ''sj''-sound can be spelled with ⟨ch⟩, ⟨g⟩, ⟨j⟩, ⟨sch⟩, ⟨sh⟩, ⟨si⟩, ⟨sj⟩, ⟨sk⟩, ⟨skj⟩, ⟨ssi⟩, ⟨ssj⟩, ⟨stj⟩, ⟨ti⟩, and others. The phoneme is a sound that has arisen in Swedish since changes to , , , , and were completely carried out at the end of the 18th century. The spellings , , and come from Latin, and have been adopted from German and French, in which case they're pronounced . In loanwords from various other languages, the pronunciation of , and has been modified to the Swedish ''sj''-sound. The Swedish sound can also be spelled several different ways, including , , , , , or , similarly to the ''tj''-sound which can be spelled with (in some loanwords), , , or . Traditional spelling reflects an older pronunciation and often results in a large difference between written and spoken language (deep orthography). Many written languages of European origin have a written language that reflects an older spoken language. The traditional spelling also indicates assimilations, which often occur when certain difficult consonant combinations are pronounced. Some words are
inflected In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and de ...
, such as , in which the is always assimilated to , and in which the is silent. It can also be the case with compound words like , traditionally pronounced like . Sometimes the spelling can influence pronunciation, so words like , , and , through spelling pronunciation, recover their silent letters.


Main orthographic rules

1. A short stressed vowel is generally followed by two or more consonants, including a double consonant: ('glass') has a long , ('ice-cream') has a short ''a''. However, there are some exceptions, such as ('I had') with a short ''a'', ('article') with a short ''i''. Phonetically, a single consonant after a stressed short vowel is geminated regardless of the spelling. 2. The letter ''m'' is not doubled at the end of the word, so the short and long stressed vowels before ''m'' are not distinguished in writing. For example: ''fem'' ('five') has a short ''e''. Exceptions: ''damm'' 'dam', ''lamm'' 'lamb', ''ramm'' 'ram' are written with ''mm'' to distinguish them from ''dam'' 'dame', ''lam'' 'lame', ''ram'' 'frame'. Derivatives of ''dom'' 'doom' and ''Rom'' 'Rome' conserve the single ''m''. Also, the double ''m'' is simplified before another consonant: ''gammal'' 'old' — ''gamla'' (plural or definite form). 3. The letter ''n'' is not doubled before ''d'' or ''t'': ''tunn'' 'thin' — neuter ''tunt''. Some words have a final single ''n'' after short vowels: ''den, in, igen, han, hon, kan, man, men, mun, ton, vän, än''. 4. Some sounds (, , , also in loanwords: ''s, c, sc, z, ps'') are spelled in multiple ways following tradition, see above. 5. The sound is spelled ''n'' before ''k'', ''g'' before ''n'', and ''ng'' otherwise. However, the adjective ''tvungna'' 'forced' (plural or definite form) has ''ng'' before ''n'' following the morphological principle, as its indefinite form is ''tvungen''. 6. Triple consonants are simplified: ''tillägg'' 'addition, appendix' from ''lägga till'' 'to add, to append'. However, hyphenation at the end of line reinstates the tripling: ''till-lägg''.


History


13th to 16th centuries

One of the earliest Swedish manuscripts is Västgötalagen, fragments of which exist from 1250. The first complete copy of the legal text was written in 1280. Medieval Swedish laws and religious texts were the first to be written in Swedish. The first changes that took place in written Swedish were the disappearance of the (thorn) character, which in the late 14th century was replaced with the digraphs and . During the 15th century, an increasing number of books of learning were produced at
Vadstena Abbey The Abbey Pax Mariae ( la, Monasterium sanctarum Mariæ Virgìnis et Brigidæ in Vatzstena), more commonly referred to as Vadstena Abbey, situated on Lake Vättern in the Diocese of Linköping, Sweden, was the motherhouse of the Bridgettine Orde ...
, which was operated by the
Bridgettine Order The Bridgettines, or Birgittines, formally known as the Order of the Most Holy Savior (; abbreviated OSsS), is a monastic religious order of the Catholic Church founded by Saint Birgitta or Bridget of Sweden in 1344, and approved by Pope Urban ...
founded by
Bridget of Sweden Bridget of Sweden (c. 1303 – 23 July 1373) born as Birgitta Birgersdotter, also Birgitta of Vadstena, or Saint Birgitta ( sv, heliga Birgitta), was a mystic and a saint, and she was also the founder of the Bridgettines nuns and monks after ...
. A permanently established orthography did not exist in the Middle Ages, and toward the end of this period, people were often liberal with consonants which were often doubled, as in ''ffonger'' (''fånge''), ''aff'' (''av'') and ''hwss'' (''hus''). Spellings also commonly included other letters that did not correspond to the pronunciation at all.


16th to 18th centuries

Since the printing press had been introduced in Sweden during the 1400s, the new religious texts that had been written during the first half of the 16th century, after the Protestant Reformation, could be printed. In 1526 the New Testament was printed in Swedish for the first time, and in 1541 the entire Bible (
Gustav Vasa Bible The Gustav Vasa Bible ( sv, Gustav Vasas bibel) is the common name of the Swedish Bible translation published in 1540–41. The full title is as appears on the right: ''Biblia / Thet är / All then Helgha Scrifft / på Swensko''. The translation ...
) was also printed in Swedish. In the Bible printings of the 1500s, the letters and were replaced with two new letters. These were and with a small written above them. Later this was replaced with two dots, and became and . A new letter, , which replaced the digraph , was used for the first time in the 1526 Bible printing. During the 17th century, as the number of operating printing presses grew and ever increasing numbers of people worked with the texts at these printing presses, orthographic disagreement grew. For this reason, a new work was commissioned to create uniform principles for spelling. These principles were applied in a new psalm book in 1695, and in the
Charles XII Bible The Charles XII Bible ( sv, Karl XII:s bibel) was a Bible translation into Swedish, instigated by King Charles XI in 1686 to produce an updated and modernised version of the old translation from 1541, which was known as the Gustav Vasa Bible. Cha ...
of 1703. But because the commission did not offer any clearer directives than that the Bible should serve as an example, disagreements about spelling continued, in part because the orthography of the Bible was seen as old-fashioned. One change in the spelling at this time was that (indicating ) disappeared, because this sound no longer existed in the spoken language. Other changes include the disappearance of silent and doubled vowels in the beginning of the 18th century. In 1732–1734, influential poet
Olof von Dalin Olof von Dalin (29 August 1708 – 12 August 1763) was a Swedish nobleman, poet, historian and courtier. He was an influential literary figure of the Swedish Enlightenment. Background Olof Dalin was born in the parish of Vinberg in Halland. ...
released the weekly periodical Then Swänska Argus (The Swedish Argus). This work, with its more casual and easier to read style of prose, had such a large influence on the Swedish language that the year 1732 has been dubbed the beginning of the  Early New Swedish period. Some of the language experts of the
Age of Liberty In Swedish and Finnish history, the Age of Liberty ( sv, frihetstiden; fi, vapauden aika) was a period that saw parliamentary governance, increasing civil rights and the decline of the Swedish Empire that began with Charles XII's death in 17 ...
were influenced by Dalin as well. During the 18th century, the written language was influenced by authors like Dalin, linguistic scholars like
Jesper Swedberg Jesper Swedberg (28 August 1653 (O.S)–26 July 1735 (N.S)) was a bishop of Skara, Sweden. He was one of Sweden's most notable churchmen. He published the first edition ever of a Swedish book of hymns in 1694, and was the father of scientist and m ...
, Eric Alstrin,
Johan Ihre Johan Ihre (3 March 1707 – 1 December 1780) was a Swedish philologist and historical linguist. Life Ihre was born in Lund, son of the theologian Thomas Ihre and his spouse Brita Steuchia. After his father's death in 1720, Johan Ihre was ...
, Sven Hof, and Abraham Sahlstedt, and printers like Lars Salvius. Salvius owned a large printing company, where nearly a third of all printings took place in the 1750s and 1760s. He was interested in creating uniformity in his own printing production and, inspired by Alstrin and Ihre, therefore created a set of orthographic rules. Cooperation between academics and printers in the 18th century resulted in an increased uniformity in Swedish orthography. The previous disorder had been partly fixed. Linguistic principles, like the principle of phonetically correct spelling for example, yielded to a new pragmatic idea that for the sake of the printing profession, rules of spelling had to be created. This resulted in Carl Gustaf af Leopold's 1801 treatise on spelling.


19th century

In 1786, the Swedish Academy was founded and that same year the author Carl Gustaf af Leopold was inducted into the academy. Leopold was commissioned to create more modern rules for Swedish orthography. In 1801 his work ' was published. In his work, Leopold wanted to standardize the spelling of loanwords, but also take a step toward a more unified spelling. According to Leopold, loanwords should adapt to Swedish pronunciation, so words like ''elegance'' and ''connaisseur'' should instead be spelled ''elegans'' and ''konnäsör'', and words like ''slag'' and ''släkt'' should both be spelled with , because they share a common etymology. Leopold's suggestions received some opposition, but in the first edition of ''
Svenska Akademiens ordlista ''Svenska Akademiens ordlista'' (, "Word list of the Swedish Academy"), abbreviated SAOL, is a spelling dictionary published every few years by the Swedish Academy. It is a single volume that is considered the final arbiter of Swedish spelling. ...
'' in 1874, the Academy had decided to adopt Leopold's spelling of 1801. The 19th century brought an ever more advanced etymological analysis of words, to form their "correct" spelling based on their origin. For example, there was a debate on whether ''nämligen'' should be spelled as such or as ''nemligen'', depending on whether the original German word was ''nehmlich'' or ''nämlich''.


Nordic spelling conference 1869

In the summer of 1869, a meeting was held in Stockholm on proper spelling. Delegates attended from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The goal was that Swedish and the Norwegian-Danish language of that time should become closer. Foremost in the discussion was whether and should be exchanged for indicating . For Swedish in particular,
Artur Hazelius Artur Immanuel Hazelius (30 November 1833 – 27 May 1901) was a Swedish teacher, scholar, folklorist and museum director. He was the founder of both the Nordic Museum (''Nordiska museet'') and the Skansen open-air museum in Stockholm. Back ...
published in 1870–71 the work ''Om svensk rättstafning'' (''On Correct Swedish Spelling''). It put forth that the guiding principle should be adhering to phonetics. The same sounds, he claimed, should always be indicated with the same letter. This implied that, for example, the letter should no longer be used to indicate both and and that sounds that can be written with several spellings such as , , and should also be changed. The same year Hazelius released his work, linguist
Johan Erik Rydqvist Johan Erik Rydqvist (20 October 1800 – 17 December 1877) was a Swedish linguist. He was a member of the Swedish Academy The Swedish Academy ( sv, Svenska Akademien), founded in 1786 by King Gustav III of Sweden, Gustav III, is one of the S ...
published "Ljudlagar och skriflagar". This was a sharp reaction against the suggestions of the Spelling Conference, which were based on phonetics. He created the first edition of the Swedish Academy's spelling dictionary of 1874, which made it a counter to reformers. Rydqvist believed that tradition and etymology should be the determiners of spelling. For example, he favored the continuation of double consonants, as in ''komma'', ''tryggt'', ''kallt'', etc. In this, Rydqvist triumphed; double consonants persist in modern Swedish. Furthermore, Rydqvist wanted to keep the letters , , , and and also keep spellings with and (for example, ''lif'', ''lefva'') instead of (''liv'', ''leva''). These last spellings with rather than and became the norm in the spelling reform of 1906.


''Svenska Akademiens ordlista'' of 1889

When the sixth edition of SAOL was released in 1889, it accepted ''kvarn'' for ''qvarn'', ''järn'' for ''jern'', ''makt'' for ''magt'', etc., following the views put forth by Academy member Esaias Tegnér Jr. Unlike the five previous, this edition of SAOL was, by royal order, used as the norm for spelling education in schools. Usage of the letters and was, as long as the
Fraktur Fraktur () is a calligraphic hand of the Latin alphabet and any of several blackletter typefaces derived from this hand. The blackletter lines are broken up; that is, their forms contain many angles when compared to the curves of the Antiq ...
typeface was used, guided by the typeface. In Fraktur, was used as a rule to indicate the sound , except for in loanwords of Latin or Romance origin, when was used. In SAOL 1874-1900, which were not printed in Fraktur, the number of words using was very small, and primarily tied to names (''clown'', ''darwinism'', ''schweizeri''). In 1900 there were some words with , but primarily as an alternate to a Swedish-adapted form (''dråback''/''drawback'', ''intervju''/''interview'', ''tomahåk''/''tomahawk'', ''trål''/''trawl'', ''visky''/''whisky'', ''vist''/''whist''). The attempt to remove was further evident in the 1923 edition. Since 1950 however, the use of in loanwords has been more acceptable, as the number of loanwords has increased. Since 2006, constitutes an individual letter of the alphabet in SAOL, sorted separately from .


1906 spelling reform

In 1880, Sweden's public elementary schoolteachers' association was formed. It aimed to reform spelling on pedagogic grounds. In the liberal administration of 1905, one of the most active members in the teacher's association, 
Fridtjuv Berg Johan Fridtjuv Berg (20 March 1851 – 29 February 1916) was a Swedish school teacher, author, and politician (liberal); he was Minister of Education from 1905 to 1906 and 1911 to 1914 and Member of Parliament from 1891 to 1916. Berg was the s ...
, became education minister. The next year, 1906, he allowed the release of a royal order stating that the spellings in the seventh edition of SAOL would form the guidelines for spelling in primary school and the lower three levels of secondary school. Berg also determined that the sound should be indicated by or rather than , and that , , and should be changed to when indicating the sound.


After 1906

In 1912 it was decided that the new rules should also apply to official writings and publications. There remained some opposition to spelling reform. Among the opposition was the Swedish Academy and the editors of SAOL. In the eighth edition of SAOL (1923), the Swedish Academy listed alternative spellings with (with the note "SvAk.") for some words officially spelled since 1906 with or . For the first time in the ninth edition in 1950, SAOL without reservation supported the spelling reform. Today, SAOL intends to be "a collection of recommendations in large part based on established practice, and also a desire to adapt additions to the language to the existing Swedish norms for spelling, inflection, and word choice."


See also

* Swedish alphabet * Orthography *
Written language A written language is the representation of a spoken or gestural language by means of a writing system. Written language is an invention in that it must be taught to children, who will pick up spoken language or sign language by exposure even i ...


References

{{Language orthographies Orthography Indo-European Latin-script orthographies