Sustainable Development Goal 15
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Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15 or Global Goal 15) is about "Life on land". One of the 17
Sustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked objectives designed to serve as a "shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future".United Nations (2017) R ...
established by the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
in 2015, the official wording is: "Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...
, combat
desertification Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by ...
, and halt and reverse
land degradation Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious ...
and halt
biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...
loss". The Goal has 12 targets to be achieved by 2030. Progress towards targets will be measured by 14 indicators. The nine "outcome targets" include: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater
ecosystems An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syste ...
; end
deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated d ...
and restore degraded forests; end
desertification Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by ...
and restore degraded land; ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems, protect
biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...
and natural habitats; protect access to genetic resources and fair sharing of the benefits; eliminate
poaching Poaching has been defined as the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land use rights. Poaching was once performed by impoverished peasants for subsistence purposes and to supplement meager diets. It was set a ...
and trafficking of
protected species An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and invas ...
; prevent
invasive alien species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced species, introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, i ...
on land and in water ecosystems; and integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning. The three "means of achieving targets" include: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity; finance and incentivize
sustainable forest management Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management has to keep the balance between three main pillars: ecological, economic and socio-cultural. ...
; combat global poaching and trafficking. Humans depend on earth and the
ocean The ocean (also the sea or the world ocean) is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of the surface of Earth and contains 97% of Earth's water. An ocean can also refer to any of the large bodies of water into which the wo ...
s to live. This goal aims at securing sustainable livelihoods that will be enjoyed for generations to come. The
human diet Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and good health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security, or a poor understanding of nutrition ...
is composed 80% of plant life, which makes
agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to ...
a prime economic resource. Forests cover 30 percent of the Earth's surface, provide vital
habitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...
s for millions of species, and important sources for clean air and water, as well as being crucial for combating
climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to E ...
. An annual report is prepared by the
Secretary-General of the United Nations The secretary-general of the United Nations (UNSG or SG) is the chief administrative officer of the United Nations and head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. The role of the secretary-g ...
evaluating the progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.United Nations Economic and Social Council (2020
Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals Report of the Secretary-General
High-level political forum on sustainable development, convened under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council (E/2020/57), 28 April 2020


Targets, indicators and progress

The UN has defined 12 Targets and 14 Indicators for SDG 15. Five of them are to be achieved by the year 2020, two by the year 2030 and the rest have no target year. Each of the targets also has one or more indicators to measure progress. In total there are fourteen indicators for SDG 15.
FAO The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)french: link=no, Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture; it, Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l'Alimentazione e l'Agricoltura is an intern ...
is the custodian agency for three of the indicators for SDG targets 15.1, 15.2 and 15.4.


Target 15.1: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems

The full title of Target 15.1 is: "By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests,
wetlands A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently (for years or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The ...
,
mountains A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher th ...
and
drylands Drylands are defined by a scarcity of water. Drylands are zones where precipitation is balanced by evaporation from surfaces and by transpiration by plants (evapotranspiration). The United Nations Environment Program defines drylands as tropical ...
, in line with obligations under international agreements." This target has two indicators: * Indicator 15.1.1: Forest area as a proportion of the total land area * Indicator 15.1.2: Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by
protected areas Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the ena ...
, by ecosystem type Forests cover roughly 4 billion hectares or 30.7 per cent of the world's land area. 93 percent are natural forests and 7 percent are planted. The forest area is defined by the land under natural or planted groups of trees of at least 5 meters
in situ ''In situ'' (; often not italicized in English) is a Latin phrase that translates literally to "on site" or "in position." It can mean "locally", "on site", "on the premises", or "in place" to describe where an event takes place and is used in ...
. The trees can be either be productive or non-productive and should not include fruit plantations and agroforestry systems and trees in urban parks and gardens.
Protected areas Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the ena ...
are defined by three indicators: 1) the proportion of total terrestrial area classified as protected 2) the proportion of important sites of terrestrial biodiversity who are protected 3) and proportion of important sites of freshwater biodiversity that are protected. A progress report in 2020 provided the following data for forest areas: * The proportion of forest area fell, from 31.9 per cent of total land area in 2000 to 31.2 per cent in 2020, representing a net loss of nearly 100 million ha of the world's forests. * From 2000 to 2020, forest area increased in
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...
,
Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
and
Northern America Northern America is the northernmost subregion of North America. The boundaries may be drawn slightly differently. In one definition, it lies directly north of Middle America (including the Caribbean and Central America).Gonzalez, Joseph. 20 ...
. * From 2000 to 2020, forest area decreased in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and South-Eastern Asia, driven by land conversion to agriculture.  In 2020 it was found that the proportion of forests in protected areas and under long-term management plans, as well as certified forest area, increased or remained stable at the global level and in most regions of the world. The United Nations General Assembly has defined Sustainable forest management as a dynamic and evolving concept that aims to maintain and enhance the economic, social and environmental values of all types of forests, for the benefit of present and future generations (Resolution A/RES/62/98). It aims to find a balance between the increasing demands for forest products and the benefits as well as preserving the health and diversity of the forests. SDG indicator 15 is composed of five sub-indicators that measure progress towards all dimensions of sustainable forest management. They provide qualification to the management of forest areas and assess areas with a set on national and international standards. Forests are affected by various direct or indirect driving factors, population, and the pursuit of food and other commodities, putting tremendous pressure on the land (Lobell et al. 2011).Findings in FAO's Forest Resources Assessment. The global forest coverage rate decreased by 3.1% from 1990 to 2015, and the rate of deforestation in tropical regions was relatively high, with an annual loss of 5-6 million hectares. Since 2001, tropical forest coverage has continued to decline, and 80% of tropical and subtropical deforestation is caused by agriculture (Kissinger et al. 2012) Latin America accounts for 70%, and Asia and Africa account for 30-35%.
REDD+ Redd is a Turkish rock band established in 1996 by tenor opera singer Doğan Duru and guitarist Berke Hatipoğlu under the name ''Ten''. They used to play at bars until they set up their own studio in 2004. Their first album, titled ''"50/50"'' ...
(Reduce deforestation) And forest degradation emissions) are largely ignored and often excluded from forest activity strategies (Klaus, 2019). This omission is harmful because the loss of fauna has an impact on tropical forest ecosystems. Significant negative impacts, which in turn affect the biodiversity in these systems, and the many socio-economic and cultural impacts that affect human well-being.


Target 15.3: End desertification and restore degraded land

The full title of Target 15.3 is: "By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world." This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.3.1 is the "Proportion of land that is degraded over the total land area".
Desertification Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by ...
is defined by the
degradation Degradation may refer to: Science * Degradation (geology), lowering of a fluvial surface by erosion * Degradation (telecommunications), of an electronic signal * Biodegradation of organic substances by living organisms * Environmental degradatio ...
of
drylands Drylands are defined by a scarcity of water. Drylands are zones where precipitation is balanced by evaporation from surfaces and by transpiration by plants (evapotranspiration). The United Nations Environment Program defines drylands as tropical ...
as a result of various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Desertification can be prevented by integrating land and water management to protect
soils Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Some scientific definitions distinguish ''dirt'' from ''soil'' by restricting the former term ...
from
erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is distin ...
and degradation, protecting the vegetations, integrating the use of land for farming among others. Desertification affects as much as one-sixth of the world's population, 70% of all drylands, and one-quarter of the total land area of the world. It also leads to spreading
poverty Poverty is the state of having few material possessions or little income. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and effects. When evaluating poverty in ...
and the degradation of billion hectares of
cropland Agricultural land is typically land ''devoted to'' agriculture, the systematic and controlled use of other forms of lifeparticularly the rearing of livestock and production of cropsto produce food for humans. It is generally synonymous with bot ...
.


Target 15.4: Ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems

The full title of Target 15.4 is: "By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their
biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...
, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development." This target has two indicators: * Indicator 15.4.1: Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity * Indicator 15.4.2: Mountain Green Cover Index The Mountain Green Cover Index measured the percentage of mountain environments covered by green areas and the capacity of those areas to fulfil their ecosystem roles. As of 2017, 76% of the world's mountain areas were covered by green vegetation, including forests, shrubs,
grassland A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur natur ...
and
cropland Agricultural land is typically land ''devoted to'' agriculture, the systematic and controlled use of other forms of lifeparticularly the rearing of livestock and production of cropsto produce food for humans. It is generally synonymous with bot ...
. The Mountain Green Cover was lowest in
Western Asia Western Asia, West Asia, or Southwest Asia, is the westernmost subregion of the larger geographical region of Asia, as defined by some academics, UN bodies and other institutions. It is almost entirely a part of the Middle East, and includes Ana ...
and
Northern Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in t ...
(60%) and highest in
Oceania Oceania (, , ) is a region, geographical region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Spanning the Eastern Hemisphere, Eastern and Western Hemisphere, Western hemispheres, Oceania is estimated to have a land area of ...
(96%).


Target 15.5: Protect biodiversity and natural habitats

The full title of Target 15.5 is: "Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of
biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...
and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of
threatened species Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants and fungi) which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of ''critical depensa ...
." This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.5.1 is the "Red List Index". The
Red List Index Summary of 2006 IUCN Red List categories. The ''Red List Index (RLI)'', based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, is an indicator of the changing state of global biodiversity. It defines the conservation status of major species groups, ...
(RLI) shows trends in overall extinction risk for species and is used by governments to track their progress towards targets for reducing
biodiversity loss Biodiversity loss includes the worldwide extinction of different species, as well as the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat, resulting in a loss of biological diversity. The latter phenomenon can be temporary or permanent, de ...
. If the RLI value is 1.0, it means that species are categorized as '
Least Concern A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wild. T ...
'. They will be expected to go extinct in the near future. If the RLI value is 0, this means that the species have gone extinct. Habitat loss, unsustainable hunting, the introduction of invasive species and other factors have led to the extinction of 322 terrestrial vertebrate since 1500. At the same time, the numbers of most living species have declined. According to a detailed assessment by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (
IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
), 24,307 species are now seriously threatened with extinction. A report in 2020 stated that globally, the
species extinction Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...
risk has worsened by about 10 per cent over the past three decades. The Red List Index is declining, from 0.82 in 1990 to 0.75 in 2015 to 0.73 in 2020. A report in 2018 stated that "biodiversity must be mainstreamed across these sectors and
spatial planning Spatial planning mediates between the respective claims on space of the state, market, and community. In so doing, three different mechanisms of involving stakeholders, integrating sectoral policies and promoting development projects mark the th ...
integrated accordingly." It also tackles the importance of taking care of
land degradation Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious ...
and restoring them where possible. An important goal in 2021 is for the world to agree on a new biodiversity framework at the 15th meeting of the Conference of Parties to the CBD in Kunming, China. Throughout 2020, UNEP advocates an ambitious and measurable framework that supports more, larger and better managed protected areas, agriculture and fisheries that actively promote biodiversity, an end to harmful subsidies, and a shift from destructive extraction resource to sustainable consumption and production patterns.


Target 15.5.A: Reduce urbanization

Urbanization Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly t ...
leads to land loss and affects natural ecosystems, and the impact of urbanization on biodiversity is more serious than other forms of human activities (Czech,et al,2000). Urbanization leads to light and noise pollution that affect the physiology, behavior and reproduction of many animals (Newport et al. 2014). Biodiversity considerations seem to be one of the least important factors. A healthy and functional natural environment is essential to promote sustainable economic growth and is conducive to human health and happiness.


Target 15.6: Protect access to genetic resources and fair sharing of the benefits

The full title of Target 15.6 is: "Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed." This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.6.1 is the "Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits". This indicator is used to track countries' participation in protocols related to the promotion and sharing of genetic resources for plants, food and agriculture. The
Nagoya Protocol The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity, also known as the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) is a ...
on "Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity" is an
international agreement A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal perso ...
which aims to share the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equal way. As of 2020, there are now 146 contracting parties to the
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (also known as ITPGRFA, International Seed Treaty or Plant Treaty), is a comprehensive international agreement in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, ...
, and 56 countries have provided information about their access and benefit-sharing measures.


Target 15.7: Eliminate poaching and trafficking of protected species

The full title of Target 15.7 is: "Take urgent action to end
poaching Poaching has been defined as the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land use rights. Poaching was once performed by impoverished peasants for subsistence purposes and to supplement meager diets. It was set a ...
and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products." This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.7.1 is the "Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked". Now on earth, nearly three-quarters of threatened or near-threatened species are being over-exploited for trade and/or subsistence purposes representing a leading global threat to biodiversity. For several Critically Endangered taxa, such as rhinos,
pangolins Pangolins, sometimes known as scaly anteaters, are mammals of the order Pholidota (, from Ancient Greek ϕολιδωτός – "clad in scales"). The one extant family, the Manidae, has three genera: ''Manis'', ''Phataginus'', and ''Smutsia'' ...
and
wedgefish Wedgefishes are rays of the family Rhinidae, comprising eleven species in three genera. Classified in the order Rhinopristiformes along with guitarfishes and sawfishes, they have also been known as giant guitarfishes or sharkfin guitarfishes. ...
, trade-driven over-exploitation represents the greatest threat to their survival. Due to the impact of COVID-19 pandemic, a wide range of policy responses have been proposed. Extreme proposals include calls for a complete ban on the use and trade of wildlife or blanket global measures for entire Classes of wildlife. They aim to protect public health, while also improving animal welfare and meeting conservation goals. Others have called for a more balanced or targeted approach, targeting critical control points in supply chains or specific species that are more likely to harbor zoonotic viruses. In China, Top legislature passed a decision to thoroughly ban the illegal trading of wildlife and eliminate the consumption of wild animals to safeguard people's lives and health.This decision covers all terrestrial wild animals, fish, wild plants, amphibians and reptiles. Vietnam has temporarily banned the import of wildlife and wildlife products (exemptions for some non-edible products) and called for enforcement of existing laws to eliminate advertising, trade and consumption of illegal wildlife products. Similarly, Bolivia re-starting bans on wildlife trade and consumption as a matter of public health. Gabon has taken a more targeted approach by banning the consumption of bats and pangolins. In general, wildlife trade policies that incentivize sustainable use typically have more immediate positive effects on wildlife populations than outright trade bans. No data are available for this indicator yet.


Target 15.8: Prevent invasive alien species on land and in water ecosystems

The full title of Target 15.8 is: "By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species." This target has one Indicator: Indicator is 15.8.1 is the "Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of
invasive alien species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced species, introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, i ...
".
Poaching Poaching has been defined as the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land use rights. Poaching was once performed by impoverished peasants for subsistence purposes and to supplement meager diets. It was set a ...
is defined by illegal hunting and capturing of wild animals. The world is facing an unprecedented spike in illegal wildlife trade. It is the largest direct threat to the future of many of the world's most threatened and vulnerable species. Wildlife poaching and trafficking threaten biodiversity and ecosystems as well as local livelihoods, wellbeing and security.
Trafficking Smuggling is the illegal transportation of objects, substances, information or people, such as out of a house or buildings, into a prison, or across an international border, in violation of applicable laws or other regulations. There are various ...
is normally driven by organized crime, and made easy by
corruption Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain. Corruption m ...
and weak
governance Governance is the process of interactions through the laws, social norm, norms, power (social and political), power or language of an organized society over a social system (family, tribe, formal organization, formal or informal organization, a ...
. Trafficking is a cross-cutting issue. Hence, addressing SDG 15.7 also addresses many other SDGs.


Target 15.9: Integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning

The full title of Target 15.9 is: "By 2020, integrate
ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syste ...
and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes,
poverty reduction Poverty reduction, poverty relief, or poverty alleviation, is a set of measures, both economic and humanitarian, that are intended to permanently lift people out of poverty. Measures, like those promoted by Henry George in his economics clas ...
strategies and accounts." Indicator is 15.9.1 is the "Progress towards national targets established in accordance with Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020". "Aichi Biodiversity Target 2" addresses the underlying causes of
biodiversity loss Biodiversity loss includes the worldwide extinction of different species, as well as the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat, resulting in a loss of biological diversity. The latter phenomenon can be temporary or permanent, de ...
by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society. The target is to have all biodiversity values integrated into national and local development by 2020 as well the incorporation of planning processes into national reporting systems. As at January 2020, 129 parties, including the
European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
, had reported their sixth national report. It was found that "about half the parties had made progress towards their targets, but not at a rate that will allow them to meet their goals".


Target 15.a: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity

The full title of Target 15.a is: "Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems." This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.a.1 is the "Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems". The official development assistance (ODA) is defined by "the flows to countries and territories on the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) list of ODA recipients and to multilateral institutions". Institutions can by official agencies, state and local governments. The transactions should mainly promote the economic development and welfare of developing countries. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) highlights the fact that biodiversity-related ODA may often target multiple objectives at the same time, such as climate change and gender equality.


Target 15.b: Finance and incentivize sustainable forest management

The full title of Target 15.b is: "Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance
sustainable forest management Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management has to keep the balance between three main pillars: ecological, economic and socio-cultural. ...
and provide adequate incentives to
developing countries A developing country is a sovereign state with a lesser developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreem ...
to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation." This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.b.1 is the "Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...
and
ecosystems An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syste ...
". This target aims at mobilizing resources at all levels to finance sustainable forest management. The United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017-2030 (UNSPF) presents a global framework for actions at all levels to sustainably manage forests and halt deforestation and forest degradation. Forests present essential
ecosystem services Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits to humans provided by the natural environment and healthy ecosystems. Such ecosystems include, for example, agroecosystems, forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems. Th ...
like timber, food, fuel as well as soil and water conservation and clean air. They also contribute to
climate change mitigation Climate change mitigation is action to limit climate change by reducing Greenhouse gas emissions, emissions of greenhouse gases or Carbon sink, removing those gases from the atmosphere. The recent rise in global average temperature is mostly caus ...
and conservation of biodiversity. When we sustainably manage forests, they become healthy and resilient and provide essential goods and services to everyone.


Target 15.c: Combat global poaching and trafficking

The full title of Target 15.c is: "Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities." This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.c.1 is the "Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked". The illegal trade and animal trafficking have grown significantly to become one of the world's largest black markets valued at tens of billions of dollars. The challenges to combat global poaching and trafficking need to be addressed by enforcing laws and strengthening institutions.


Potential solutions and importance


Why SDG 15 is important

The reason SDG 15 is so impactful to our environment is because it promotes conservation, as well as biodiversity sustainably. These two facets supports the health of an ecosystem, which is vital for providing food, water, as well as ecosystem services, such as climate regulation and recreation. These ecosystem services are closely related to biodiversity, and essential to the livelihoods and well-being of marginalized groups, such as rural and indigenous communities. About 1.6 billion of the world’s population depend on forests for their livelihood, which includes more than 70 million Indigenous peoples. SDG 15 also has a huge impact on sustainable development, which relies on the prosperity of land/forest ecosystems. 30% of the Earth’s surface is covered by forests, all of which together home more than 80% of all the terrestrial species of animals and plants in the world. However, according to data released by the University of Maryland, the planet lost an area of tree cover larger than the United Kingdom in 2020, which includes more than 4.2 million hectares of primary tropical forests. This catastrophic losses of forests due to deforestation results in a loss in biodiversity, and consequently, low crop yield. Considering deforestation accounts for about 15% of emissions worldwide enhancing desertification, decreased forest cover could/has resulted in an increase in global warming's effects on our climate, which would affect over 1 billion of the population in the world. SDG 15 is vital to have its targets met, because protecting and restoring ecosystems, as well as the biodiversity they support, directly mitigates the effects of climate change, and provide greater resilience in the face of increasing human pressure, and increasing disasters in our world.


Potential Solutions

* Measure, manage and mitigate impacts on ecosystems and natural resources. * Scale up best practices for land use planning and management. * Invest in natural infrastructure as a cost-competitive alternative to grey infrastructure. * Finance the restoration of degraded land for production and/or conservation purposes. * Support and apply landscape approaches, based on multi-stakeholder dialogue and collaborative action, to overcome social and environmental fracture lines in landscapes facing deforestation, land and ecosystem degradation. * Commit to and implement responsible sourcing practices beyond compliance - applying environmental and social safeguards - for all raw materials and commodities. * Expand markets for responsible forest products and thereby support sustainable forest management. * Foster product and technology innovation to optimize resource efficiency, reduce impacts on ecosystems and lower carbon emissions. * Scale up industrial reuse of water and support watershed protection programs.


Custodian agencies

The custodian agencies are responsible for data gathering and reporting on the indicators. They are: * Indicator 15.1.1, 15.2.1 and 15.4.2:
Food and Agriculture Organization The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)french: link=no, Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture; it, Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l'Alimentazione e l'Agricoltura is an intern ...
(FAO) * Indicator 15.1.2:
United Nations Environmental Programme The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system. It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on th ...
-
World Conservation Monitoring Center The UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) is a collaboration centre of UN Environment Programme, based in Cambridge in the United Kingdom. UNEP-WCMC has been part of UN Environment Programme since 2000, and has r ...
(UNEP-WCMC) and
United Nations Environmental Programme The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system. It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on th ...
* Indicator 15.3.1 and 15.4.1:
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (UNCCD) is a Convention to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought through ...
(UNCCD) * Indicator 15.5.1 and 15.8.1: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) * Indicator 15.6.1: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-Secretariat) * Indicator 15.7.1 and 15.c.1:
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC; French: ''Office des Nations unies contre la drogue et le crime'') is a United Nations office that was established in 1997 as the Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention by combining the ...
, and Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species (CITIES) * Indicator 15.9.1: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-Secretariat) and
United Nations Environmental Programme The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system. It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on th ...
(UNEP) * Indicator 15.a.1, 15.6.1 and 15.b.1: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and World Bank (WB)


Monitoring and progress

An annual report is prepared by the
Secretary-General of the United Nations The secretary-general of the United Nations (UNSG or SG) is the chief administrative officer of the United Nations and head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. The role of the secretary-g ...
evaluating the progress towards the
Sustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked objectives designed to serve as a "shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future".United Nations (2017) R ...
. According to the expert group meeting in preparation for the High-level Political Forum of 2018, progress on SDG 15 is related to actions rather than status. For example, there is progress on the numbers of protected areas but enough on the Red List numbers. The monitoring framework still needs to be linked to quality to obtain more meaningful results. It also needs more indicators in areas such as
forest A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...
intactness, management effectiveness of protected areas, and meaningful integration of biodiversity into other processes. The biggest constraints to achieving SDG 15 are the lack of political profile, and a lack of cohesive action. This, accompanied by the fragmented nature of efforts to stabilize the loss of nature and life and land, means it is crucial to understand the political relevance of SDG 15 and act accordingly. This will give a clear picture of the costs of achieving this goal. Five of the SDG 15 targets ( 15.1, 15.2, 15.5,15.8 and 15.9) that were linked to biodiversity were set to mature in 2020. Based on progress by June 2020 however, it seemed unlikely that they would meet the deadline. Target 15.1 outlines an average of 44% terrestrial and 41% freshwater biodiversity areas classified within a protected area (United Nations Statistics Division, 2020). Less than half of the outlined key biodiversity areas are protected currently, and progress is still slowing. In a progress summary for SDGS from 2020, progress has been made, but has not been enough to meet the target (United Nations Statistics Division, 2020). The loss of forests has continued to remain high, even if the shrinking is at a slower pace than in the past. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, forest area has declined between 2000 and 2020, from 31.9% to 31.2%, respectively. Between 2015 and 2020, the estimated annual rate of deforestation was 10 million hectares, which is an improvement over the 12 million hectares between 2010 and 2015 (UN News, 2020). This is directly linked to target 15.2, and according to a progress summary that shows that progress that has been made, is simply not enough to achieve the target. For target 15.5, there has been no progress or progress is moving from the target. Extinction risks for species has worsened by 10% over 3 decades, which directly opposes the aim of the target: to protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species. For target 15.8, no progress has been made, but with the growth in the number of invasive species and their spread due to increased trade and transport, the rate of biological invasions are not slowing down anytime soon. For target 15.9, progress has been made, but is not sufficient to meet the target. By January 2020, progress towards the national targets related to Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 was examined by 113 parties and about half of them made progress but at a slower pace, which would not allow them to achieved their targets by the end of 2020.


Challenges


Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic

In
FAO The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)french: link=no, Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture; it, Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l'Alimentazione e l'Agricoltura is an intern ...
's 2020 report on the state of the world's forests, the degradation and loss of forests was mentioned as an underlying cause of the
COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, is an ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The novel virus was first identif ...
. It is a contributing factor to disrupting nature's balance and increasing the risk and exposure of people to animal-related diseases. COVID-19 is a proof that degraded habitats will continue to lead to more animal-human interactions, diversification of diseases, evolutionary processes because parasites spread easily from livestock to human beings. It is evident from the pandemic that wildlife trafficking is a great contributor to ecosystems disruptions and spread of infections. In 2020, there was brief progress on SDGS 12-15 on sustainable production and consumption, climate action and biodiversity conservation, but these gains were quickly offset once restrictions were lifted.This applies to CO₂ emissions, which declined in major economies during lockdowns, but went quickly back to their pre-pandamic levels after restrictions were lifted. It is estimated that deforestation increased by 12% from 2019 to 2020, and plastic consumption and waste may also increase during pandemic. Due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the use and disposal of
Personal Protective Equipment Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, elec ...
(PPE) including face masks,gloves, face shields, and other types of PPE has increased considerably.According to a standing stock surveys COVID-19 PPE contamination accounted for 16.5% of total contamination. Similarly, a large numbers of PPE( a total of 29,254 PPE items) were found out which 97.9% were face masks. In Fiji, approximately 10 masks were found within 100 meters of the street. All of this waste turns into microplastics, affecting Marine life, life on land (dogs, birds and cats) and water. The Covid pandemic has also made governments pay more attention to wildlife trafficking and trade. Some governments have taken decisive action and implemented new policy measures. For example, China's highest legislature passed the decision to "total prohibit illegal wildlife trade, eliminate the consumption of wild animals, and protect people's lives and health." Vietnam temporarily bans the import of wild animals and wild animal products (with some exemptions for various non-edible products), and calls for the implementation of existing laws to eliminate the advertising, purchase, sale and consumption of illegal wild animal products (Prime Minister of Vietnam, 2020). Similarly, Bolivia passed a resolution reaffirming the prohibition of wildlife trade and consumption as a public health issue (Ministryio de Medio Ambiente y Agua, 2020). Gabon has adopted a more targeted approach, banning the consumption of bats and pangolins.


Impact on SDG 15

The effects of COVID-19 have an impact on the SDG 15 goals for short term (2020) and long term (2030) targets. The target addressing terrestrial and inland
freshwater ecosystem Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, springs, bogs, and wetlands. They can be contrasted with marine ecosystems, which have a larger salt content. Freshwater habitats ...
s has been shown to be reached, with the terrestrial and inland ecosystem being strengthened in 2020. In relation to sustaining management of forests, the economic and production activities have discontinued, resulting in an overall positive impact on forests in 2020. The mountain ecosystem, additionally, generates a huge economical impact on mountain range regions in 2020 and is predicted to do so long term as well. Lastly, the target consisting of the impact of foreign alien species proclaims ecological balance through the maintenance of plants and animals needs to be evaluated, as economical investments are required to prolong the system. By 2030, the implantations of the practices based on the economic benefits need to be evaluated, as well as the long term requirement of forests for human utilization. A study from Skyline University College conjectures the COVID-19 to potentially have originated from illegal wildfire trades in China’s wet markets, causing the other nations to tackle the reasons for that catastrophe. Environmentalist Saudamini Das of Institute of Economic Growth ties the positive impact of the pandemic on SDG 15 to be due to an increased consciousness amongst individuals for knowing more about biodiversity. Amba Jambir, Police Analyst with Sustainable Forum Nagaland elucidates the dependency on farms and natural forest ecosystems. Jambir declares individuals globally gained more insight on eating healthy food during the lockdown due to the restriction of external food services. Das predicts a negative outcome from this insight as she predicts the possibility of people showing a preference to healthier foods and vegetarian eating, which may strain agriculture and biodiversity.


Links with other SDGs

The UN 17
sustainable development goals The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked objectives designed to serve as a "shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future".United Nations (2017) R ...
are inherently interconnected, most of the goals can be achieved only when others are also achieved. And achieving any individual goal tends to help the achievement of the other goals. SDG 15 aims to "protect, restore and promote the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss". Even though it is primarily an environmental goal, it is seen as contributing to the implementation of many other goals, particularly the issues of food production and livelihoods, which are closely linked. The success in conserving biodiversity can help to achieve SDG 1. For example, when farms have more biodiverse, they are more resilient and productive, reducing poverty by increasing agricultural productivity. Biodiversity also provides basic resources and ecosystem services that directly support a range of economic activities such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and tourism. Similarly,
SDG 2 Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG 2 or Global Goal 2) aims to achieve "zero hunger". It is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015. The official wording is: "End hunger, achieve food security and im ...
is to eradicate hunger, and eradicating hunger largely depends on agricultural productivity. Growing food while maintaining biodiversity in agriculture, is a key component of achieving food security. In line with SDG 3, more biodiverse environments protect people from specific pathogens and pests that not only damage crops but also directly threaten human health. Protecting biological diversity, reducing pollution and controlling pests through natural rather than pesticide can also protect human health. The impact of SDG 15 on gender equality ( SDG 5) is also significant. In many parts of the world, women are farmers, especially poor women living in rural areas. They are the main labor force in growing crops, often depend on forests for fuel, fodder and food. Their limited ownership of the land reduces their ability to adapt to losses or decide how to use it. By protecting biodiversity and thus maintaining agricultural productivity, can also empower gender equality. When forest conditions and regeneration improve, women themselves will get a greater political voice. Indigenous women in Peru, for example, have turned to ancestral farming techniques in response to climate change with support from the UN Women Gender Fund. In addition to healthier crops and higher community incomes, the program promotes indigenous women's participation in public Spaces and decision-making. For SDG 6 and SDG 7, the availability and quality of water from the functioning of ecosystems, especially forest ecological system. Protecting biodiversity, and maintaining the integrity of wetlands and forests play a huge role in the acquisition and replenishment of freshwater resources because natural ecosystems act as filters to clean water and protect it from diseases that can harm the animal or human health. Biodiversity, if managed properly, can allow the sustainable use of biological energy, this means that gaining energy from crops, for example, gaining methane from crop production waste, is a form of access to energy, rather than from fossil fuels, thereby reducing pollution, will exert positive effects on biodiversity conservation.SDG 15 has a direct link to SDG 8 includes high-yield agriculture and tourism, which attracts tourists through protected ecosystems and biodiverse environments, thereby enhancing economic returns. At the same time, the conservation and integrity of ecological zones, ecosystems, can play a huge role in protecting infrastructure (
SDG 9 Sustainable Development Goal 9 (Goal 9 or SDG 9) is about "industry, innovation and infrastructure" and is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. SDG 9 aims to build resilient infrastruc ...
). Such as protecting road networks, power lines, and other infrastructure in areas threatened by natural disasters. If biodiversity is destroyed, it negatively affects poor people, because their livelihoods depend heavily on ecosystems, thereby increasing inequality( SDG 10). For
urban development Urban means "related to a city". In that sense, the term may refer to: * Urban area, geographical area distinct from rural areas * Urban culture, the culture of towns and cities Urban may also refer to: General * Urban (name), a list of peop ...
(
SDG 11 Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11 or Global Goal 11), titled "sustainable cities and communities", is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. The official mission of SDG 11 is t ...
), modeling studies of urban temperatures in the coming decades suggest that in urban areas with a 10% reduction in green cover, urban temperatures could rise by 8.2 ° C above current levels under high emissions scenarios. On the other hand, a 10% increase in urban green coverage could limit temperature increases to 1° C. Maintaining biodiversity plays a vital role in helping to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Mangrove forests, for example, account for approximately 1% of carbon sequestration by the world’s forests, but about 14% by the global ocean. Therefore, negative impacts on mangrove habitats can result in very high GHG emissions. The impact of land-based activities such as agriculture, land reclamation and urban development on ecosystems demonstrates the high degree of linkage between SDG 13, SDG 14 and SDG 15, and the importance of the overall management of all three.


Organizations


US Based Organizations

In the US there are over eight thousand tax-exempt organizations working on issues related to UN SDG 15, according to data filed with the Internal Revenue Service –IRS and aggregated by X4Impact. X4Impact, with the support of the Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation, Hewlett Foundation, and Giving Tech Labs, created a free online interactive tool Life on Land and Nature Conservation in the US.


References


External links


UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – SDG 15

“Global Goals” Campaign - SDG 15

SDG-Track.org - SDG 15

UN SDG 15 in the US
{{Deforestation Sustainable development Sustainable Development Goals United Nations documents