Sultanate Of Oman

Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of the Persian Gulf. Oman shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, while sharing maritime borders with Iran and Pakistan. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by the United Arab Emirates on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz (which it shares with Iran) and the Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's coastal boundaries. Muscat is the nation's capital and largest city.

From the 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was an empire, vying with the Portuguese and British empires for influence in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence and control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to Iran and Pakistan, and as far south as Zanzibar. When its power declined in the 20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the United Kingdom. For over 300 years, the relations built between the two empires were based on mutual benefit. The UK recognized Oman's geographical importance as a trading hub that secured their trading lanes in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean and protected their empire in the Indian sub-continent. Historically, Muscat was the principal trading port of the Persian Gulf region.

Oman is an absolute monarchy led by a Sultan, with power passed down through the male line. Qaboos bin Said was the Sultan from 1970 until his death on 10 January 2020. Qaboos bin Said, who died childless, had named his cousin, Haitham bin Tariq, as his successor in a letter, and the family confirmed him as the new Sultan of Oman.

Formerly a maritime empire, Oman is the oldest continuously independent state in the Arab world. It is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, the Gulf Cooperation Council, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. It has oil reserves ranked 22nd globally. In 2010, the United Nations Development Programme ranked Oman as the most improved nation in the world in terms of development during the preceding 40 years. A portion of its economy involves tourism and trading fish, dates and other agricultural produce. Oman is categorized as a high-income economy and, , ranks as the 64th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index.

Etymology

The origin of Oman's name seems to be related to Pliny the Elder's Omana and Ptolemy's Omanon ( in Greek), both probably the ancient Sohar.''Encyclopedia of Islam''.
Oman
. E.J. Brill (Leiden), 1913. The city or region is typically etymologized in Arabic from ''aamen'' or ''amoun'' ("settled" people, as opposed to the Bedouin). Although a number of eponymous founders have been proposed (Oman bin Ibrahim al-Khalil, Oman bin Siba' bin Yaghthan bin Ibrahim, Oman bin Qahtan and the Biblical Lot), others derive it from the name of a valley in Yemen at Ma'rib presumed to have been the origin of the city's founders, the Azd, a tribe migrating from Yemen.''Tarikh fi Uman'' 'Oman in History''

History

Prehistory and ancient history

At Aybut Al Auwal, in the Dhofar Governorate of Oman, a site was discovered in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools, belonging to a regionally specific African lithic industry—the late Nubian Complex—known previously only from the northeast and Horn of Africa. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old. This supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene.

In recent years surveys have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites on the eastern coast. Main Palaeolithic sites include Saiwan-Ghunaim in the Barr al-Hikman. Archaeological remains are particularly numerous for the Bronze Age Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods. Sites such as Bat show professional wheel-turned pottery, excellent hand-made stone vessels, a metals industry and monumental architecture
. The Early (1300‒300 BC) and Late Iron Ages (100 BC‒300 AD) show more differences than similarities to each other. Thereafter, until the coming of Ibadi Islam, little or nothing is known.

There is considerable agreement in sources that frankincense was used by traders in 1500 BC. The Land of Frankincense, a UNESCO World Heritage site, dramatically illustrates that the incense constituted testimony to South Arabian civilizations.

During the 8th century BC, it is believed that the Yaarub, the descendant of Qahtan, ruled the entire region of Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin Abd-Shams (Saba) bin Yashjub ( Yaman) bin Yarub bin Qahtan later ruled Oman. It is thus believed that the Yaarubah were the first settlers in Oman from Yemen.

In the 1970s and 1980s scholars like John C. Wilkinson believed by virtue of oral history that in the 6th century BC, the Achaemenids exerted control over the Omani peninsula, most likely ruling from a coastal centre such as Suhar. Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage named eponymously from Samad al-Shan. In the northern part of the Oman Peninsula the Recent Pre-Islamic Period begins in the 3rd century BC and extends into the 3rd A.D. century. Whether or not Persians brought south-eastern Arabian under their control is a moot point, since the lack of Persian finds speak against this belief. M. Caussin de Percevel suggests that Shammir bin Wathil bin Himyar recognized the authority of Cyrus the Great over Oman in 536 B.C.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân
History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 39. QDL.

Sumerian tablets referred to Oman as " Magan" and in the Akkadian language "Makan", a name which links Oman's ancient copper resources. Mazoon, a Persian name used to refer to Oman's region, which was part of the Sasanian Empire.

Arab settlement

Over centuries tribes from western Arabia settled in Oman, making a living by fishing, farming, herding or stock breeding, and many present day Omani families trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia. Arab migration to Oman started from northern-western and south-western Arabia and those who chose to settle had to compete with the indigenous population for the best arable land. When Arab tribes started to migrate to Oman, there were two distinct groups. One group, a segment of the Azd tribe migrated from Yemen in A.D. 120/200 following the collapse of Marib Dam, while the other group migrated a few centuries before the birth of Islam from Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia), named Nizari. Other historians believe that the Yaarubah from Qahtan which belong to an older branch, were the first settlers of Oman from Yemen, and then came the Azd.

The Azd settlers in Oman are descendants of Nasr bin Azd, a branch of Nabataeans, and were later known as "the Al-Azd of Oman". Seventy years after the first Azd migration, another branch of Alazdi under Malik bin Fahm, the founder of Kingdom of Tanukhites on the west of Euphrates, is believed to have settled in Oman.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân (40/612)
History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. QDL. According to Al-Kalbi, Malik bin Fahm was the first settler of Alazd.Annals of 'Omān
British National Archive: Annals of 'Omān' [3] (20/112).
British National Archive. Page 20. QDL. He is said to have first settled in Qalhat. By this account, Malik, with an armed force of more than 6000 men and horses, fought against the Marzban, who served an ambiguously named Persian king in the battle of Salut in Oman and eventually defeated the Persian forces. This account is, however, semi-legendary and seems to condense multiple centuries of migration and conflict into a story of two campaigns that exaggerate the success of the Arabs. The account may also represent an amalgamation of various traditions from not only the Arab tribes but also the region's original inhabitants. Furthermore, no date can be determined for the events of this story.

In the 7th century AD, Omanis came in contact with and accepted Islam. The conversion of Omanis to Islam is ascribed to Amr ibn al-As, who was sent by the prophet Muhammad during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Hisma). Amer was dispatched to meet with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman. They appear to have readily embraced Islam.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (44/612).
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 44. QDL.

Imamate of Oman

Omani Azd used to travel to Basra for trade, which was a centre of Islam, during the Umayyad empire. Omani Azd were granted a section of Basra, where they could settle and attend to their needs. Many of the Omani Azd who settled in Basra became wealthy merchants and, under their leader Muhallab bin Abi Sufrah, started to expand their influence of power eastwards towards Khorasan. Ibadhi Islam originated in Basra through its founder, Abdullah ibn Ibadh, around the year 650 CE; the Omani Azd in Iraq would subsequently adopt this as their predominant faith. Later, Al-hajjaj, the governor of Iraq, came into conflict with the Ibadhis, which forced them back to Oman. Among those who returned was the scholar Jaber bin Zaid. His return (and the return of many other scholars) greatly enhanced the Ibadhi movement in Oman. Alhajjaj also made an attempt to subjugate Oman, then ruled by Suleiman and Said (the sons of Abbad bin Julanda). Alhajjaj dispatched Mujjaah bin Shiwah, who was confronted by Said bin Abbad. This confrontation devastated Said's army, after which he and his forces retreated to the Jebel Akhdar (mountains). Mujjaah and his forces went after Said, successfully flushing them out from hiding in Wadi Mastall. Mujjaah later moved towards the coast, where he confronted Suleiman bin Abbad. The battle was won by Suleiman's forces. Alhajjaj, however, sent another force (under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman); he eventually won the war, taking over the governance of Oman.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (164/612).
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 164. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (165/612).
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 165. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (166/612).
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 166. QDL.

The first elective Imamate of Oman is believed to have been established shortly after the fall of the Umayyad Dynasty in 750/755 AD, when Janaħ bin ʕibadah Alħinnawi was elected.Hans kruse
Notes and Memoranda of Oman ''Hans kruse''.
Disturbances in Oman: Notes and Memoranda of Oman. Sage Journals. 1 October 1965. Other scholars claim that Janaħ bin Ibadah served as a Wāli (governor) under the Umayyad dynasty (and later ratified the Imamate), and that Julanda bin Masud was the first elected Imam of Oman, in A.D. 751.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (46/612).
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 46. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (168/612)
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 168. QDL. The first Imamate reached its peak power in the ninth A.D. century. The Imamate established a maritime empire whose fleet controlled the Gulf, during a time when trade with the Abbasid Dynasty, the Far East, and Africa flourished. The authority of the Imams started to decline due to power struggles, the constant interventions of Abbasid, and the rise of the Seljuk Empire.

Nabhani dynasty

During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Omani coast was in the sphere of influence of the Seljuk Empire. They were expelled in 1154, when the Nabhani dynasty came to power.Uzi Rabi
Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur.
Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur. The Nabhanis ruled as ''muluk'', or kings, while the Imams were reduced to largely symbolic significance. The capital of the dynasty was Bahla. The Banu Nabhan controlled the trade in frankincense on the overland route via Sohar to the Yabrin oasis, and then north to Bahrain, Baghdad and Damascus. The mango-tree was introduced to Oman during the time of Nabhani dynasty, by ElFellah bin Muhsin.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân ''(54/612)''.
History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 54. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân ''(202/612)''.
History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 202. QDL. The Nabhani dynasty started to deteriorate in 1507 when Portuguese colonisers captured the coastal city of Muscat, and gradually extended their control along the coast up to Sohar in the north and down to Sur in the southeast.Gavin Thomas
The Rough Guide to Oman .
The Rough Guide to Oman. Other historians argue that the Nabhani dynasty ended earlier in A.D. 1435 when conflicts between the dynasty and Alhinawis arose, which led to the restoration of the elective Imamate.

Portuguese era

A decade after Vasco da Gama's successful voyage around the Cape of Good Hope and to India in 1497–98, the Portuguese arrived in Oman and occupied Muscat for a 143-year period, from 1507 to 1650. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese built up and fortified the city, where remnants of their Portuguese architectural style still exist. Later, several more Omani cities were colonized in the early 16th century by the Portuguese, to control the entrances of the Persian Gulf and trade in the region as part of a web of fortresses in the region, from Basra to Hormuz.

However, in 1552 an Ottoman fleet briefly captured the fort in Muscat, during their fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, but soon departed after destroying the surroundings of the fortress.

Later in the 17th century using is bases in Oman, Portugal took on the biggest battle ever taken in the Persian Gulf ( Battle off Hormuz (1625)). The Portuguese force fought against a combined armada of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and English East India Company support by the Safavid empire. The result of the battle was a draw but it resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf.Willem Floor, "Dutch Relations with the Persian Gulf", in Lawrence G. Potter (ed.), ''The Persian Gulf in History'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 240.

Several cities were sketched in the 17th century and appear in the António Bocarro Book of fortress.

Yaruba dynasty (1624–1744)

The Ottoman Empire temporarily captured Muscat from the Portuguese again in 1581 and held it until 1588. During the 17th century, the Omanis were reunited by the Yaruba Imams. Nasir bin Murshid became the first Yaarubah Imam in 1624, when he was elected in Rustaq. Nasir's energy and perseverance is believed to have earned him the election. Imam Nasir and his successor succeeded in the 1650s in expelling the Portuguese from their coastal domains in Oman.Majid Alkhalili
Majid Alkhalili: ''Oman's Foreign Policy''.
Oman's Foreign Policy: Foundation and Practice. 19 May 2009. Praeger. The Omanis over time established a maritime empire that pursued the Portuguese and expelled them from all their possessions in East Africa north of Mozambique, which were then incorporated into the Omani domains. To capture Zanzibar Saif bin Sultan, the Imam of Oman, pressed down the Swahili Coast. A major obstacle to his progress was Fort Jesus, housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at Mombasa. After a two-year siege, the fort fell to Imam Saif bin Sultan in 1698. Thereafter the Omanis easily ejected the Portuguese from other African coastal regions including Kilwa and Pemba. Saif bin Sultan occupied Bahrain in 1700. Qeshm was captured in 1720.J. C. Wilkinson
The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia.
The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia. Pages 361–371. The Geographical Journal. JSTOR. 1971.'E. C. B. MacLaurin
Oman and the Trucial Coast.
Oman and the Trucial Coast. Pages 65–76. The Australian Quarterly. JSTOR. 1958. The rivalry within the house of Yaruba over power after the death of Imam Sultan in 1718 weakened the dynasty. With the power of the Yaruba Dynasty dwindling, Imam Saif bin Sultan II eventually asked for help against his rivals from Nader Shah of Persia. A Persian force arrived in March 1737 to aid Saif. From their base at Julfar, the Persian forces eventually rebelled against the Yaruba in 1743. The Persian empire then tried to take possession of the coast of Oman until 1747.Stefan Siebert
The Rough Guide to Oman.
The Rough Guide to Oman. 2011.

18th and 19th centuries

After the Omanis expelled the Persians, Ahmed bin Sa'id Albusaidi in 1749 became the elected Imam of Oman, with Rustaq serving as the capital. Since the revival of the Imamate with the Yaruba dynasty, the Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that the person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling family.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (83/612) ''British National Archive''.
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 83. QDL. Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin Ahmed became the elected Imam. His son, Seyyid Hamed bin Said, overthrew the representative of his father the Imam in Muscat and obtained the possession of Muscat fortress. Hamed ruled as "Seyyid". Afterwards, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, the uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took over power. Seyyid Said bin Sultan succeeded Sultan bin Ahmed.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (86/612).
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 86. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (92/612) ''British National Archive''.
History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 92. QDL. During the entire 19th century, in addition to Imam Said bin Ahmed who retained the title until he died in 1803, Azzan bin Qais was the only elected Imam of Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler, as he was viewed as inimical to their interests. This view played an instrumental role in supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, Sayyid Turki, a son of the late Sayyid Said bin Sultan, and brother of Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar, who Britain deemed to be more acceptable.Robert Geran Landen
Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society.
Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Pages 581–583. JSTOR. 1970. Vol. 90, No. 4.

Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar, an area of modern-day Pakistan. Gwadar was a part of Oman from 1783 to 1958. This coastal city is located in the Makran region of what is now the far southwestern corner of Pakistan, near the present-day border of Iran, at the mouth of the Gulf of Oman.In 1783, when Seyyid Said succeeded to the "masnad" of Muscat and Oman (an independent state founded in 1749), he fell out with his brother Imam Sultan, who fled to safety in Makran and entered into communication with Nasir Khan of Kalat. Said was granted the Kalat share of the revenues of Gwadar and lived there until 1797 when he came to rule over Muscat and Oman. After regaining control of Muscat, this sovereignty was continued via an appointed '' wali'' ("governor"). Currently, Gwadar's residents speak Urdu