Square Root

In mathematics, a square root of a number is a number such that ; in other words, a number whose ''square'' (the result of multiplying the number by itself, or  ⋅ ) is . For example, 4 and −4 are square roots of 16, because .

Every nonnegative real number has a unique nonnegative square root, called the ''principal square root'', which is denoted by $\sqrt,$ where the symbol $\sqrt$ is called the '' radical sign'' or ''radix''. For example, to express the fact that the principal square root of 9 is 3, we write $\sqrt = 3$. The term (or number) whose square root is being considered is known as the ''radicand''. The radicand is the number or expression underneath the radical sign, in this case 9. For nonnegative , the principal square root can also be written in exponent notation, as .

Every positive number has two square roots: $\sqrt,$ which is positive, and $-\sqrt,$ which is negative. The two roots can be written more concisely using the ± sign as $\plusmn\sqrt$. Although the principal square root of a positive number is only one of its two square roots, the designation "''the'' square root" is often used to refer to the principal square root.

Square roots of negative numbers can be discussed within the framework of complex numbers. More generally, square roots can be considered in any context in which a notion of the "square" of a mathematical object is defined. These include function spaces and square matrices, among other mathematical structures.

History

The Yale Babylonian Collection YBC 7289 clay tablet was created between 1800 BC and 1600 BC, showing $\sqrt$ and $\frac = \frac$ respectively as 1;24,51,10 and 0;42,25,35 base 60 numbers on a square crossed by two diagonals. (1;24,51,10) base 60 corresponds to 1.41421296, which is a correct value to 5 decimal points (1.41421356...).

The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is a copy from 1650 BC of an earlier Berlin Papyrus and other textspossibly the Kahun Papyrusthat shows how the Egyptians extracted square roots by an inverse proportion method.

In Ancient India, the knowledge of theoretical and applied aspects of square and square root was at least as old as the ''Sulba Sutras'', dated around 800–500 BC (possibly much earlier). A method for finding very good approximations to the square roots of 2 and 3 are given in the ''Baudhayana Sulba Sutra''. Aryabhata, in the '' Aryabhatiya'' (section 2.4), has given a method for finding the square root of numbers having many digits.

It was known to the ancient Greeks that square roots of positive integers that are not perfect squares are always irrational numbers: numbers not expressible as a ratio of two integers (that is, they cannot be written exactly as $\frac$, where ''m'' and ''n'' are integers). This is the theorem ''Euclid X, 9'', almost certainly due to Theaetetus dating back to circa 380 BC.
The particular case of the square root of 2 is assumed to date back earlier to the Pythagoreans, and is traditionally attributed to Hippasus. It is exactly the length of the diagonal of a square with side length 1.

In the Chinese mathematical work '' Writings on Reckoning'', written between 202 BC and 186 BC during the early Han Dynasty, the square root is approximated by using an "excess and deficiency" method, which says to "...combine the excess and deficiency as the divisor; (taking) the deficiency numerator multiplied by the excess denominator and the excess numerator times the deficiency denominator, combine them as the dividend."

A symbol for square roots, written as an elaborate R, was invented by Regiomontanus (1436–1476). An R was also used for radix to indicate square roots in Gerolamo Cardano's '' Ars Magna''.

According to historian of mathematics D.E. Smith, Aryabhata's method for finding the square root was first introduced in Europe by Cataneo—in 1546.

According to Jeffrey A. Oaks, Arabs used the letter '' jīm/ĝīm'' (), the first letter of the word "" (variously transliterated as ''jaḏr'', ''jiḏr'', ''ǧaḏr'' or ''ǧiḏr'', "root"), placed in its initial form () over a number to indicate its square root. The letter ''jīm'' resembles the present square root shape. Its usage goes as far as the end of the twelfth century in the works of the Moroccan mathematician Ibn al-Yasamin.

The symbol "√" for the square root was first used in print in 1525, in Christoph Rudolff's ''Coss''.

Properties and uses

The principal square root function $f(x) = \sqrt$ (usually just referred to as the "square root function") is a function that maps the set of nonnegative real numbers onto itself. In geometrical terms, the square root function maps the area of a square to its side length.

The square root of ''x'' is rational if and only if ''x'' is a rational number that can be represented as a ratio of two perfect squares. (See square root of 2 for proofs that this is an irrational number, and quadratic irrational for a proof for all non-square natural numbers.) The square root function maps rational numbers into algebraic numbers, the latter being a superset of the rational numbers).

For all real numbers ''x'',

:$\sqrt = \left, x\ = \begin x, & \mboxx \ge 0 \\ -x, & \mboxx < 0. \end$     (see absolute value)

For all nonnegative real numbers ''x'' and ''y'',

:$\sqrt = \sqrt x \sqrt y$

and

:$\sqrt x = x^.$

The square root function is continuous for all nonnegative ''x'', and differentiable for all positive ''x''. If ''f'' denotes the square root function, whose derivative is given by:
:$f'(x) = \frac.$

The Taylor series of $\sqrt$ about ''x'' = 0 converges for ≤ 1, and is given by

:$\sqrt = \sum_^\infty \fracx^n = 1 + \fracx - \fracx^2 + \frac x^3 - \frac x^4 + \cdots,$

The square root of a nonnegative number is used in the definition of Euclidean norm (and distance), as well as in generalizations such as Hilbert spaces. It defines an important concept of standard deviation used in probability theory and statistics. It has a major use in the formula for roots of a quadratic equation; quadratic fields and rings of quadratic integers, which are based on square roots, are important in algebra and have uses in geometry. Square roots frequently appear in mathematical formulas elsewhere, as well as in many physical laws.

Square roots of positive integers

A positive number has two square roots, one positive, and one negative, which are opposite to each other. When talking of ''the'' square root of a positive integer, it is usually the positive square root that is meant.

The square roots of an integer are algebraic integers—more specifically quadratic integers.

The square root of a positive integer is the product of the roots of its prime factors, because the square root of a product is the product of the square roots of the factors. Since $\sqrt = p^k,$ only roots of those primes having an odd power in the factorization are necessary. More precisely, the square root of a prime factorization is
:$\sqrt=p_1^\dots p_n^\sqrt.$

As decimal expansions

The square roots of the perfect squares (e.g., 0, 1, 4, 9, 16) are integers. In all other cases, the square roots of positive integers are irrational numbers, and hence have non-repeating decimals in their decimal representations. Decimal approximations of the square roots of the first few natural numbers are given in the following table.

:

As expansions in other numeral systems

As with before, the square roots of the perfect squares (e.g., 0, 1, 4, 9, 16) are integers. In all other cases, the square roots of positive integers are irrational numbers, and therefore have non-repeating digits in any standard positional notation system.

The square roots of small integers are used in both the SHA-1 and SHA-2 hash function designs to provide nothing up my sleeve numbers.

As periodic continued fractions

One of the most intriguing results from the study of irrational numbers as continued fractions was obtained by Joseph Louis Lagrange

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