Sophia ( grc-koi, σοφία ''sophía'' "

wisdom Wisdom, sapience, or sagacity is the ability to contemplate and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight. Wisdom is associated with attributes such as unbiased judgment, compassion, experiential self-knowledg ...

") is a central idea in Hellenistic philosophy and

religion Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatur ...

, Platonism, Gnosticism and Christian theology. Originally carrying a meaning of "cleverness, skill", the later meaning of the term, close to the meaning of '' Phronesis'' ("wisdom, intelligence"), was significantly shaped by the term ''

philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...

'' ("love of wisdom") as used by

Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...

. In the

Orthodox Church Orthodox Church may refer to: * Eastern Orthodox Church * Oriental Orthodox Churches * Orthodox Presbyterian Church * Orthodox Presbyterian Church of New Zealand * State church of the Roman Empire * True Orthodox church See also * Orthodox (d ...

and the

Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...

, the feminine personification of divine wisdom as Holy Wisdom ( ''Hagía Sophía'') can refer either to

Jesus Christ Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label= Hebrew/ Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and relig ...

the Word of God (as in the dedication of the church of

Hagia Sophia Hagia Sophia ( 'Holy Wisdom'; ; ; ), officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque ( tr, Ayasofya-i Kebir Cami-i Şerifi), is a mosque and major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The cathedral was originally built as a Greek Ortho ...

Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...

) or to the Holy Spirit. References to ''Sophia'' in

Koine Greek Koine Greek (; Koine el, ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος, hē koinè diálektos, the common dialect; ), also known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek or New Testament Greek, was the common supra-reg ...

translations of the

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' Hebrew Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...

term ''

Chokhmah ''Chokmah'' ( Hebrew: חָכְמָה ) is the Biblical Hebrew word rendered as " wisdom" in English Bible versions (LXX '' sophia'', Vulgate ').'' Strong's Concordance'H2451 "from H2449 �ָכַם ''chakam'' "wise" wisdom (in a good sense):—s ...

''.

Greek and Hellenistic tradition

The

Ancient Greek Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic pe ...

word ''Sophia'' (, ) is the abstract noun of (), which variously translates to "clever, skillful, intelligent, wise". These words share the same Proto-Indo-European root as the

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...

verb (), whence . The noun as "skill in handicraft and art" is

Homeric Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...

and in Pindar is used to describe both Hephaestos and

Athena Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of v ...

. Before

, the term for "sound judgment, intelligence, practical wisdom" and so on, such qualities as are ascribed to the

Seven Sages of Greece The Seven Sages (of Greece) or Seven Wise Men ( Greek: ''hoi hepta sophoi'') was the title given by classical Greek tradition to seven philosophers, statesmen, and law-givers of the 7–6th century BC who were renowned for their wisdom. T ...

, was '' phronesis'' (, ), from ''

phren In Ancient Greek philosophy, ''Phren'' ( grc, φρήν, phrēn, mind; plural ''phrenes'', φρένες) is the location of thought or contemplation. The kind of mental activity conducted in the ''Phren'' involves what 20th and 21 Century Western ...

'' (, , ), while ''sophia'' referred to technical skill. The term '' philosophia'' (, , ) was primarily used after the time of

, following his teacher

Socrates Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no t ...

, though it has been said that

Pythagoras Pythagoras of Samos ( grc, Πυθαγόρας ὁ Σάμιος, Pythagóras ho Sámios, Pythagoras the Samian, or simply ; in Ionian Greek; ) was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher and the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. His poli ...

was the first to call himself a philosopher. This understanding of ''philosophia'' permeates Plato's dialogues, especially the '' Republic''. In that work, the leaders of the proposed

utopia A utopia ( ) typically describes an imaginary community or society that possesses highly desirable or nearly perfect qualities for its members. It was coined by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book '' Utopia'', describing a fictional island soc ...

are to be philosopher kings: rulers who are lovers of wisdom. According to Plato in '' Apology'', Socrates himself was dubbed "the wisest man of Greece" by the Pythian Oracle. Socrates defends this verdict in ''Apology'' to the effect that he, at least, knows that he knows nothing. Socratic skepticism is contrasted with the approach of the sophists, who are attacked in '' Gorgias'' for relying merely on eloquence.

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...

in later criticized Plato for his separation of wisdom from eloquence. ''Sophia'' is named as one of the four

cardinal virtues The cardinal virtues are four virtues of mind and character in both classical philosophy and Christian theology. They are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. They form a virtue theory of ethics. The term ''cardinal'' comes from the ...

(in place of ''phronesis'') in

's '' Protagoras''.

Philo Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. Philo's de ...

, a

Hellenized Jew Hellenistic Judaism was a form of Judaism in classical antiquity that combined Jewish religious tradition with elements of Greek culture. Until the early Muslim conquests of the eastern Mediterranean, the main centers of Hellenistic Judaism were A ...

writing in

Alexandria Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...

, attempted to harmonize Platonic philosophy and Jewish scripture. Also influenced by Stoic philosophical concepts, he used the Koine term ''

logos ''Logos'' (, ; grc, λόγος, lógos, lit=word, discourse, or reason) is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric and refers to the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. Aris ...

'' (, ) for the role and function of Wisdom, a concept later adapted by the author of the

Gospel of John The Gospel of John ( grc, Εὐαγγέλιον κατὰ Ἰωάννην, translit=Euangélion katà Iōánnēn) is the fourth of the four canonical gospels. It contains a highly schematic account of the ministry of Jesus, with seven "sig ...

in the opening verses and applied to Jesus as the Word (

Logos ''Logos'' (, ; grc, λόγος, lógos, lit=word, discourse, or reason) is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric and refers to the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. Aris ...

) of God the Father. Harris, Stephen L., ''Understanding the Bible''. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John". pp. 302–10 In Gnosticism, Sophia is a feminine figure, analogous to the

soul In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being". Etymology The Modern English noun '' soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest att ...

, but also simultaneously one of the emanations of the Monad. Gnostics held that she was the syzygy of Jesus (i.e. the Bride of Christ) and was the Holy Spirit of the Trinity.

Christian theology

Christian theology received the Old Testament personification of Divine Wisdom (

Septuagint The Greek Old Testament, or Septuagint (, ; from the la, septuaginta, lit=seventy; often abbreviated ''70''; in Roman numerals, LXX), is the earliest extant Greek translation of books from the Hebrew Bible. It includes several books beyond t ...

''Sophia'', Vulgate ''Sapientia''). The connection of Divine Wisdom to the concept of the Logos resulted in the interpretation of "Holy Wisdom" (''Hagia Sophia'') as an aspect of Christ the Logos. Gerald O'Collins, '' Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 35–41 The expression itself is not found in the

New Testament The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Chris ...

, even though passages in the Pauline epistles equate Christ with the "wisdom of God" (). The clearest form of the identification of Divine Wisdom with Christ comes in 1 Corinthians 1:17–2:13. In 1 Cor. 2:7, Paul speaks of the Wisdom of God as a mystery which was "ordained before the world unto our glory".

Christology

Following 1 Corinthians, the Church Fathers named Christ as "Wisdom of God". Therefore, when rebutting claims about Christ's ignorance,

Gregory of Nazianzus Gregory of Nazianzus ( el, Γρηγόριος ὁ Ναζιανζηνός, ''Grēgorios ho Nazianzēnos''; ''Liturgy of the Hours'' Volume I, Proper of Saints, 2 January. – 25 January 390,), also known as Gregory the Theologian or Gregory N ...

insisted that, inasmuch as he was divine, Christ knew everything: "How can he be ignorant of anything that is, when he is Wisdom, the maker of the worlds, who brings all things to fulfillment and recreates all things, who is the end of all that has come into being?" (''Orationes'', 30.15).

Irenaeus Irenaeus (; grc-gre, Εἰρηναῖος ''Eirēnaios''; c. 130 – c. 202 AD) was a Greek bishop noted for his role in guiding and expanding Christian communities in the southern regions of present-day France and, more widely, for the de ...

represents another, minor patristic tradition which identified the Spirit of God, and not Christ himself, as "Wisdom" ('' Adversus haereses'', 4.20.1–3; cf. 3.24.2; 4.7.3; 4.20.3). He could appeal to Paul's teaching about wisdom being one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 12:8). However, the majority applied to Christ the title/name of "Wisdom". Hagia-Sophia-Laengsschnitt

Constantine the Great Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to convert to Christianity. Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterran ...

set a pattern for Eastern Christians by dedicating a church to Christ as the personification of Divine Wisdom. In

, under

Justinian I Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized '' renov ...

, the Hagia Sophia ("Holy Wisdom") was rebuilt, consecrated in 538, and became a model for many other Byzantine churches. In the Latin Church, however, "the Word" or ''Logos'' came through more clearly than "the Wisdom" of God as a central, high title of Christ. In the theology of the

Eastern Orthodox Church The Eastern Orthodox Church, also called the Orthodox Church, is the second-largest Christian church, with approximately 220 million baptized members. It operates as a communion of autocephalous churches, each governed by its bishops via ...

, Holy Wisdom is understood as the Divine Logos who became incarnate as Jesus; this belief being sometimes also expressed in some Eastern Orthodox icons. In the

Divine Liturgy Divine Liturgy ( grc-gre, Θεία Λειτουργία, Theia Leitourgia) or Holy Liturgy is the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine Rite, developed from the Antiochene Rite of Christian liturgy which is that of the Ecumenical Patriarchate ...

of the Orthodox Church, the exclamation ''Sophia!'' or in English ''Wisdom!'' will be proclaimed by the

deacon A deacon is a member of the diaconate, an office in Christian churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. Major Christian churches, such as the Catholic Chur ...

or priest at certain moments, especially before the reading of scripture, to draw the congregation's attention to sacred teaching. There is a hagiographical tradition, dating to the late sixth century,V. Saxer, "Sophia v. Rom" in: ''Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche'' vol. 9 (1993)
733f.
/ref> of a Saint Sophia and her three daughters, Saints Faith, Hope and Charity. This has been taken as the

veneration Veneration ( la, veneratio; el, τιμάω ), or veneration of saints, is the act of honoring a saint, a person who has been identified as having a high degree of sanctity or holiness. Angels are shown similar veneration in many religions. Etym ...

of allegorical figures from an early time, and the group of saints has become popular in Russian Orthodox iconography as such (the names of the daughters rendered as ). The veneration of the three saints named for the three theological virtues probably arose in the 6th century.

Iconography

The Christological identification of Christ the Logos with Divine Wisdom (''Hagia Sophia'') is strongly represented in the iconographic tradition of the

Russian Orthodox Church , native_name_lang = ru , image = Moscow July 2011-7a.jpg , imagewidth = , alt = , caption = Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, Russia , abbreviation = ROC , type ...

. A type of icon of the Theotokos is "Wisdom hath builded Her house" ( Премудрость созда Себе дом), a quote from Proverbs 9:1 ("Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars") interpreted as prefiguring the incarnation, with the Theotokos being the "house" chosen by the " hypostatic Wisdom" (i.e. "Wisdom" as a person of the Trinity).

Christian mysticism

In Russian Orthodox mysticism, ''Sophia'' became increasingly indistinguishable from the person of the ''Theotokos'' (rather than Christ), to the point of the implication of the ''Theotokos'' as a "fourth person of the Trinity". Such interpretations became popular in the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries, forwarded by authors such as Vladimir Solovyov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev, and

Sergei Bulgakov Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov (; russian: Серге́й Никола́евич Булга́ков; – 13 July 1944) was a Russian Orthodox theologian, priest, philosopher, and economist. Biography Early life: 1871–1898 Sergei Nikolaevich B ...

. Bulgakov's theology, known as " Sophianism", presented Divine Wisdom as "consubstantiality of the Holy Trinity", operating as the aspect of consubstantiality (ousia or physis, substantia or natura) or "hypostaticity" of the Trinity of the three hypostases, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, "which safeguards the unity of the Holy Trinity". It was the topic of a highly political controversy in the early 1930s and was condemned by the Russian Orthodox church as heretical in 1935.; online at Within the

Protestant Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...

tradition in England, Jane Leade, seventeenth-century Christian mystic, Universalist, and founder of the Philadelphian Society, wrote copious descriptions of her visions and dialogues with the "Virgin Sophia" who, she said, revealed to her the spiritual workings of the Universe. Leade was hugely influenced by the theosophical writings of sixteenth century

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...

Christian mystic Jakob Böhme, who also speaks of the Sophia in works such as ''The Way to Christ'' (1624). Jakob Böhme was very influential to a number of Christian mystics and religious leaders, including

George Rapp John George Rapp (german: Johann Georg Rapp; November 1, 1757 in Iptingen, Duchy of Württemberg – August 7, 1847 in Economy, Pennsylvania) was the founder of the religious sect called Harmonists, Harmonites, Rappites, or the Harmony Society ...

, William Law, and the Harmony Society.

Personification

''Sophia'' is not a "goddess" in classical Greek tradition; Greek goddesses associated with wisdom are

Metis Metis or Métis may refer to: Ethnic groups * Métis, recognized Indigenous communities in Canada and America whose distinct culture and language emerged after early intermarriage between First Nations peoples and early European settlers, primar ...

and

(Latin

Minerva Minerva (; ett, Menrva) is the Roman goddess of wisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. Minerva is not a patron of violence such as Mars, but of strategic war. From the second century BC onward, the R ...

). By the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...

, it became common to depict the

and other abstract ideals as female allegories. Thus, in the Library of Celsus in Ephesus, built in the 2nd century, there are four statues of female allegories, depicting wisdom (Sophia), knowledge ( Episteme), intelligence (

Ennoia ''Nous'', or Greek νοῦς (, ), sometimes equated to intellect or intelligence, is a concept from classical philosophy for the faculty of the human mind necessary for understanding what is true or real. Alternative English terms used in ph ...

) and valour/excellence (

Arete ''Arete'' (Greek: ) is a concept in ancient Greek thought that, in its most basic sense, refers to 'excellence' of any kind Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R. '' A Greek–English Lexicon'', 9th ed. (Oxford, 1940), s.v.br>—especially a person or thi ...

). In the same period, ''Sophia'' assumes aspects of a goddess or angelic power in Gnosticism. In Christian iconography, Holy Wisdom or ''Hagia Sophia'' was depicted as a female allegory from the medieval period. In Western (Latin) tradition, she appears as a crowned virgin; in Russian Orthodox tradition, she has a more supernatural aspect of a crowned woman with wings in a glowing red colour. The virgin martyrs Faith Hope and Charity with their mother Sophia are depicted as three small girls standing in front of their mother in widow's dress. ''

Allegory of Wisdom and Strength ''Allegory of Wisdom and Strength'' or ''Wisdom and Strength'' is a painting by Paolo Veronese, created circa 1565 in Venice, Italy and now located in the Frick Collection. It is a large-scale allegorical painting depicting Divine Wisdom person ...

'' is a painting by Paolo Veronese, created circa 1565 in

Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...

. It is a large-scale allegorical painting depicting Divine Wisdom personified on the left and

Hercules Hercules (, ) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures. The Romans adapted the ...

, representing Strength and earthly concerns, on the right.

Modern reception

A goddess ''Sophia'' was introduced into Anthroposophy by its founder, Rudolf Steiner, in his book ''The Goddess: From Natura to Divine Sophia'' and a later compilation of his writings titled ''Isis Mary Sophia.'' Sophia also figures prominently in

Theosophy Theosophy is a religion established in the United States during the late 19th century. It was founded primarily by the Russian Helena Blavatsky and draws its teachings predominantly from Blavatsky's writings. Categorized by scholars of religion a ...

, a spiritual movement which Anthroposophy was closely related to. Helena Blavatsky, the founder of Theosophy, described it in her essay ''What is Theosophy?'' as an esoteric wisdom doctrine, and said that the "Wisdom" referred to was "an emanation of the Divine principle" typified by "…some goddesses—Metis, Neitha, Athena, the Gnostic Sophia…" Since the 1970s, Sophia has also been invoked as a goddess in Dianic Wicca and related currents of feminist spirituality. The 1979 installation artwork '' The Dinner Party'' features a place setting for Sophia. There is a monumental sculpture of Holy Wisdom depicted as a "goddess" in Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria (the city itself is named after Saint Sofia Church). The sculpture was erected in 2000 to replace a statue of Lenin.

References

Bibliography

* T. Hainthaler, F. Mali, G. Emmenegger, & M. L. Ostermann (eds.), Sophia. The Wisdom of God - Die Weisheit Gottes. Forscher aus dem Osten und Westen Europas an den Quellen des gemeinsamen Glaubens (Innsbruck, Wien: Tyrolia-Verlag) . * Bulgakov, Sergei, "Sophia. The Wisdom of God. An Outline of Sophiology" (Hudson, NY: Lindisfarne Press, 1993) . * Hunt, Priscilla, "The Wisdom Iconography of Light: The Genesis, Meaning and Iconographic Realization of a Symbol", ''Byzantino-slavica'' 67 (2009). * Hunt, Priscilla, "Confronting the End: The Interpretation of the Last Judgment in a Novgorod Wisdom Icon", ''Byzantino-Slavica'', 65, 2007, 275–325. * Hunt, Priscilla, "The Novgorod Sophia Icon and 'The Problem of Old Russian Culture' Between Orthodoxy and Sophiology", ''Symposion: A Journal of Russian Thought'', vol. 4–5, (2000), 1–41. * Hunt, Priscilla, "Andrei Rublev’s Old Testament Trinity Icon in Cultural Context", The Trinity-Sergius Lavr in Russian History and Culture: ''Readings in Russian Religious Culture'', vol. 3, Deacon Vladimir Tsurikov, ed., Jordanville, NY: Holy Trinity Seminary Press, 2006, 99–122. * Schipflinger, Thomas, ''Sophia-Maria'' (in German: 1988; English translation: York Beach, ME: Samuel Wiser, 1998) . * Versluis, Arthur, ''Theosophia: hidden dimensions of Christianity'' (Hudson, NY: Lindisfarne Press, 1994) . * Versluis, Arthur, ''Wisdom’s children: a Christian esoteric tradition'' (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1999) . * Versluis, Arthur (ed.) ''Wisdom’s book: the Sophia anthology'' (St.Paul, Min: Paragon House, 2000) .

External links

Divine Wisdom articles compiled by Priscilla Hunt

Texts about the controversy with regard to Bulgakov's sophiology (in German, English, Russian, French)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sophia (Wisdom) Biblical cosmology Christology Gnosticism Greek words and phrases Platonism Theories in ancient Greek philosophy Wisdom Wisdom goddesses