Small Moral Works
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''Small Moral Works'' ( it, Operette morali ) is a collection of 24 writings (dialogues and fictional essays) by the
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
poet and philosopher
Giacomo Leopardi Count Giacomo Taldegardo Francesco di Sales Saverio Pietro Leopardi (, ; 29 June 1798 – 14 June 1837) was an Italian philosopher, poet, essayist, and philologist. He is considered the greatest Italian poet of the nineteenth century and one of ...
, written between 1824 and 1832. The book was first published in 1827, then in 1834, with changes, and in its last form in Naples (1835), in a censored edition;
Antonio Ranieri Antonio Ranieri (8 September 1806 – 4 January 1888) was an Italian writer, patriot and politician, better known for his juvenile intimate friendship with Giacomo Leopardi (1798 – 1837), the most renowned 19th-century Italian poet. Biography ...
, a longtime friend of Leopardi's, had it published in the original text in 1845. Small Moral Works expresses most of the ideas collected in the ''
Zibaldone di pensieri Count Giacomo Taldegardo Francesco di Sales Saverio Pietro Leopardi (, ; 29 June 1798 – 14 June 1837) was an Italian philosopher, poet, essayist, and philologist. He is considered the greatest Italian poet of the nineteenth century and one of ...
''. The themes discussed in these Works are: the relationship between man and history, between man and other men, and, most importantly, between man and
Nature Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physics, physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomenon, phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. ...
, of which Leopardi develops a personal philosophical view; a comparison of past values and the present, static, degenerate situation; the power of illusions, glory and boredom. Unlike Leopardi's ''Canti'', ''Small Moral Works'' was written almost entirely in 1824. Different editions show the addition of later dialogues and other adjustments.


Background

The works reflect the conviction that reason, far from being the cause of man's unhappiness, is the only means by which man can avoid despair. Leopardi reached this final point of his reflection about human condition in the years 1822–1824, and in 1824 he conceived the "Operette morali", which collected and elaborated in a dramatic and ironic expression the philosophical research developed in the
Zibaldone A ''zibaldone'' (plural ''zibaldoni'') is an Italian vernacular commonplace book. The word means "a heap of things" or "miscellany" in Italian. The earliest such books were kept by Venetian merchants in the fourteenth century, taking the form of a ...
. In this period, Leopardi, believing that his lyrical voice has vanished, devoted himself to philosophical prose. A first idea of this work can be traced in the plan of some "prosette satiriche" (satirical prose), "alla maniera di Luciano" (following the style of
Lucian Lucian of Samosata, '; la, Lucianus Samosatensis ( 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer Pamphleteer is a historical term for someone who creates or distributes pamphlets, unbound (and therefore ...
). In Italian literature, nothing similar to the ''Operette'' can be found. Leopardi imitates Lucian's comical style with wit and humor, and moves through different levels of language. He even mixes various
genres Genre () is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other for ...
and themes. Apart from Lucian, the most significant models in literary style come from the Enlightenment. Leopardi appreciates Fontenelle for his "leggerezza" (lightness), while in ''Dialogo della Natura e di un Islandese'', one can perceive some of
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his ...
's cynicism. Among the Italians, Leopardi admired
Ariosto Ludovico Ariosto (; 8 September 1474 – 6 July 1533) was an Italian poet. He is best known as the author of the romance epic ''Orlando Furioso'' (1516). The poem, a continuation of Matteo Maria Boiardo's ''Orlando Innamorato'', describes the ...
, whose "comical style" he imitates in ''Dialogo della Terra e della Luna''. The extensive knowledge of a great number of works, both philosophical and scientific, is the basis for the humorous and frivolous erudition that Leopardi ironically flaunted. A philological research about the sources that Leopardi cites or merely re-uses in the ''Operette'', in a constant
intertextual Intertextuality is the shaping of a text's meaning by another text, either through deliberate compositional strategies such as quotation, allusion, calque, plagiarism, translation, pastiche or parody,Gerard Genette (1997) ''Paratexts'p.18/ref>H ...
dialogue, is still lacking.


Analysis

This book is particularly important in the evolution of Leopardi's ideology, and the dialogues have intense lyrical value. As Mario Fubini observed, in the ''Operette'' one finds some myths-concepts: happiness, pleasure, love, hope, nature, which are also central themes in the ''Canti''. Happiness is absurd and impossible, but can seem lovable in its deceptive apparitions; pleasure is only a vain ghost; hope inspires pleasant imaginations even if it has no basis; love is a rare miracle that can give man the only real happiness, though short-lived; nature is indifferent or hostile to men, who anyway feel fascinated by natural beauty.


The title

The title ties the satirical form with the moral purpose. ''Operette'' is a humble diminutive: these are short texts, which the author considers small both in size and in value. Their shortness enhances the bright philosophical and poetic strength, while ''morali'' stresses the philosophical subject. There is an implicit link to ''Opuscula moralia'' by
Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
. The title comes also from the practical message: since modern philosophy with its truth makes man unhappy, going back to ancient passions and imaginations could make life less unbearable or, at least, suggest ways to soothe sorrow.


Themes

The themes revolve around the philosophical ideas of the author: the relationship of mankind with
History History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the History of writing#Inventions of writing, invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbr ...
and
Nature Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physics, physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomenon, phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. ...
, the comparison with the valours of the past and the degenerated situation of the present, illusions, glory and boredom. One of the most famous dialogues is the ''Dialogo della Natura e di un Islandese'', in which the author expresses his main philosophical ideas, through the imaginary meeting, "in the heart of Africa", between a simple man coming from Iceland and a giant, beautiful and terrible woman, Nature, who has been chasing and oppressing him everywhere. Another important text is the ''Dialogo di Plotino e di Porfirio'', in which two ancient philosophers,
Plotinus Plotinus (; grc-gre, Πλωτῖνος, ''Plōtînos'';  – 270 CE) was a philosopher in the Hellenistic philosophy, Hellenistic tradition, born and raised in Roman Egypt. Plotinus is regarded by modern scholarship as the founder of Neop ...
and Porphyry, debate on the meaning of life and the choice of death as a possible exit from the senseless existence. The dialogue ends by refusing suicide, not in the name of superior rules or religious creeds, but in the name of human solidarity. Men have so many causes of sorrow that it would be wrong to add them another one, as the loss of a friend or a loved person. Instead, says Plotinus, "let us help each other to endure this struggle of life, which anyway will be short". In the earlier poems ''Bruto minore'' and ''Ultimo canto di Saffo'', suicide is presented, instead, as the action of a great soul rejecting cowardice and bleakness of life. The last dialogue, ''Dialogo di Tristano e di un Amico'', reflects Leopardi's experience and thoughts in the person of Tristano. The name of this character is inspired by the famous legendary hero, and by
Laurence Sterne Laurence Sterne (24 November 1713 – 18 March 1768), was an Anglo-Irish novelist and Anglican cleric who wrote the novels ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'' and ''A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy'', published ...
's ''Tristram Shandy''. The
incipit The incipit () of a text is the first few words of the text, employed as an identifying label. In a musical composition, an incipit is an initial sequence of notes, having the same purpose. The word ''incipit'' comes from Latin and means "it beg ...
describes the "Operette" themselves as a "melancholic book", and "a desperate one". Later, however, Tristan ironically expresses admiration for the new times and for the optimistic faith in a better future, but he ends up by proudly affirming his refusal of all illusions, and by courageously facing "tutte le conseguenze di una filosofia dolorosa, ma vera (all the consequences of an agonizing but true philosophy)". Many similarities can be found with the themes of "La Ginestra".Frank Rosengarten, ''Giacomo Leopardi’s Search For A Common Life Through Poetry: A Different Nobility, A Different Love'', Lexington Books, 2012, p.169


Structure

This is the list of the dialogues and essays, in the last edition: * ''Storia del genere umano'', (''History of the human kind'')
(January 19 / February 7
1824 May 7: The almost completely deaf Beethoven premieres his Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven) , Ninth Symphony Events January–March * January 8 – After much controversy, Michael Faraday is finally elected as a member of the Royal Society, ...
) * ''Dialogo di Ercole e di Atlante'', (''Dialogue between Hercules and Atlas'')
(February 10 / February 13, 1824) * ''Dialogo della Moda e della Morte'', (''Dialogue between Fashion and Death'')
(February 15 / February 18, 1824) * ''Proposta di premi fatta all'Accademia dei Sillografi'', (''Proposal for prizes at the Academy of the Sillographes'')
(February 22 / February 25, 1824) * ''Dialogo di un Folletto e di uno Gnomo'', (''Dialogue between a Pixie and a Gnome'')
(March 2 / March 6, 1824) * ''Dialogo di Malambruno e di Farfarello'', (''Dialogue between Malambruno and Farfarello'')
(April 1 / April 3, 1824) * ''Dialogo della Natura e di un'Anima'', (''Dialogue between Nature and a Soul'')
(April 9 / April 14, 1824) * ''Dialogo della Terra e della Luna'', (''Dialogue between the Earth and the Moon'')
(April 24 / April 28, 1824) * ''La scommessa di Prometeo'', (''The bet of Prometheus'')
(April 30 / May 8, 1824) * ''Dialogo di un fisico e di un metafisico'', (''Dialogue between a Physicist and a Metaphysicist'')
(May 14 / May 19, 1824) * ''Dialogo della Natura e di un Islandese'', (''Dialogue between Nature and an Icelander'')
(May 21 / May 30, 1824) * ''Dialogo di Torquato Tasso e del suo Genio familiare'', (''Dialogue between Torquato Tasso and his Familial Genius'')
(June 1 / June 10, 1824) * ''Dialogo di Timandro e di Eleandro'', (''Dialogue between Timandro and Eleandro'')
(June 14 / June 24, 1824) * ''Il Parini, ovvero Della Gloria'', (''Parini, or On Glory'')
(July 6 / August 30, 1824) * ''Dialogo di Federico Ruysch e delle sue mummie'', (''Dialogue between
Frederick Ruysch Frederik Ruysch (; March 28, 1638 – February 22, 1731) was a Dutch botanist and anatomist. He is known for developing techniques for preserving anatomical specimens, which he used to create dioramas or scenes incorporating human parts. His an ...
and his mummies'')
(August 16 / August 23, 1824) * ''Detti memorabili di Filippo Ottonieri'', (''Memorable sayings about Filippo Ottonieri'')
(August 29 / September 26, 1824) * ''Dialogo di Cristoforo Colombo e di Pietro Gutierrez'' (''Dialogue between
Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus * lij, Cristoffa C(or)ombo * es, link=no, Cristóbal Colón * pt, Cristóvão Colombo * ca, Cristòfor (or ) * la, Christophorus Columbus. (; born between 25 August and 31 October 1451, died 20 May 1506) was a ...
and Peter Gutierrez'')
(October 19 / November 5, 1824) * ''Elogio degli uccelli'' (''Eulogy of the Birds'')
(October 29 / November 5, 1824) * ''Cantico del gallo silvestre'' (''Sylvan Rooster Chant'')
(November 10 / November 16, 1824) * ''Frammento apocrifo di Stratone da Lampsaco'', (''Apocryphal passage of
Strato of Lampsacus Strato of Lampsacus (; grc-gre, Στράτων ὁ Λαμψακηνός, Strátōn ho Lampsakēnós, – ) was a Peripatetic philosopher, and the third director (scholarch) of the Lyceum after the death of Theophrastus. He devoted himself especia ...
'')
(autumn
1825 Events January–March * January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies in Naples and is succeeded by his son, Francis. * February 3 – Vendsyssel-Thy, once part of the Jutland peninsula forming westernmost Denmark, becomes a ...
) * ''Il Copernico'', (''Copernicus'')
(
1827 Events January–March * January 5 – The first regatta in Australia is held, taking place on Tasmania (called at the time ''Van Diemen's Land''), on the River Derwent at Hobart. * January 15 – Furman University, founded in 1826, b ...
) * ''Dialogo di Plotino e Porfirio'', (''Dialogue between
Plotinus Plotinus (; grc-gre, Πλωτῖνος, ''Plōtînos'';  – 270 CE) was a philosopher in the Hellenistic philosophy, Hellenistic tradition, born and raised in Roman Egypt. Plotinus is regarded by modern scholarship as the founder of Neop ...
and Porphyry'')
(1827) * ''Dialogo di un venditore d'almanacchi e di un passeggere'' (''Dialogue between an almanac seller and a passer-by'')
(
1832 Events January–March * January 6 – Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison founds the New-England Anti-Slavery Society. * January 13 – The Christmas Rebellion of slaves is brought to an end in Jamaica, after the island's white plan ...
) * ''Dialogo di Tristano e di un amico'' (''Dialogue between Tristano and a Friend'')
(1832)


References

{{Authority control 1827 non-fiction books Works by Giacomo Leopardi Italian-language works Philosophy books Satirical books Works about philosophical pessimism