The siege of Taormina in 902 ended the conquest of the
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
city of
Taormina
Taormina ( , , also , ; scn, Taurmina) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Messina, on the east coast of the island of Sicily, Italy. Taormina has been a tourist destination since the 19th century. Its beaches on ...
, in northeastern
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
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, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
, by the
Aghlabids
The Aghlabids ( ar, الأغالبة) were an Arab dynasty of emirs from the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim, who ruled Ifriqiya and parts of Southern Italy, Sicily, and possibly Sardinia, nominally on behalf of the Abbasid Caliph, for about a ...
. The campaign was led by the deposed Aghlabid emir,
Ibrahim II, as a form of armed
pilgrimage
A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
and
holy war
A religious war or a war of religion, sometimes also known as a holy war ( la, sanctum bellum), is a war which is primarily caused or justified by differences in religion. In the modern period, there are frequent debates over the extent to wh ...
. Ibrahim's forces defeated the Byzantine garrison in a hard-fought battle in front of the city walls, and laid siege to the city. Left unsupported by the Byzantine government, Taormina capitulated on 1 August. The population was massacred or sold into slavery. The fall of this last major Byzantine stronghold signalled the completion of the
Muslim conquest of Sicily
The Muslim conquest of Sicily began in June 827 and lasted until 902, when the last major Byzantine stronghold on the island, Taormina, fell. Isolated fortresses remained in Byzantine hands until 965, but the island was henceforth under Musli ...
, which had been ongoing since the 820s, although some minor Byzantine outposts survived until the 960s.
Background
Following the
fall
Autumn, also known as fall in American English and Canadian English, is one of the four temperate seasons on Earth. Outside the tropics, autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March ( Southe ...
of
Syracuse
Syracuse may refer to:
Places Italy
* Syracuse, Sicily, or spelled as ''Siracusa''
* Province of Syracuse
United States
*Syracuse, New York
**East Syracuse, New York
** North Syracuse, New York
* Syracuse, Indiana
*Syracuse, Kansas
*Syracuse, M ...
to the
Aghlabids
The Aghlabids ( ar, الأغالبة) were an Arab dynasty of emirs from the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim, who ruled Ifriqiya and parts of Southern Italy, Sicily, and possibly Sardinia, nominally on behalf of the Abbasid Caliph, for about a ...
of
Ifriqiya
Ifriqiya ( '), also known as al-Maghrib al-Adna ( ar, المغرب الأدنى), was a medieval historical region comprising today's Tunisia and eastern Algeria, and Tripolitania (today's western Libya). It included all of what had previously ...
in 878,
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
presence in
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
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, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
had been limited to the northeastern third of the island (the "
Val Demone
Val Demone or Val di Demona (English: 'Valley of Demona') is a historical and geographical region encompassing the north-eastern third of Sicily. Historically, it was one of the three valli of Sicily.
Val Demone was the last part of the island to ...
"). In the aftermath of their capture of Syracuse, the Aghlabids launched repeated raids against the Val Demone in the 880s, but made little headway. As the main stronghold remaining in Byzantine hands, the city of
Taormina
Taormina ( , , also , ; scn, Taurmina) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Messina, on the east coast of the island of Sicily, Italy. Taormina has been a tourist destination since the 19th century. Its beaches on ...
and its environs was one of the chief targets of the Aghlabid attacks during this period, being attacked in 879/80, 881/82, 883, 885, and 889. From on, the raids ceased, chiefly due to the outbreak of internal quarrels among the Muslims of Sicily, which even resulted in full civil war between the Arab and Berber factions of the Aghlabid army in 898.
The civil war in Sicily prompted the dispatch of
Abu'l-Abbas Abdallah, son of the Aghlabid emir
Ibrahim II, as the island's governor in 900. When Abu'l-Abbas landed at Sicily, factional strife had mutated to a quarrel between the cities of
Palermo
Palermo ( , ; scn, Palermu , locally also or ) is a city in southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan province. The city is noted for its ...
and
Agrigento
Agrigento (; scn, Girgenti or ; grc, Ἀκράγας, translit=Akrágas; la, Agrigentum or ; ar, كركنت, Kirkant, or ''Jirjant'') is a city on the southern coast of Sicily, Italy and capital of the province of Agrigento. It was one o ...
, the precise nature of which is unknown. After negotiations failed, Abu'l-Abbas Abdallah marched on Palermo, which he captured on 18 September 900. A great number of the rebels fled the city to the Byzantines in Taormina, with some reaching even
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
itself. The Byzantines tried to take advantage of the revolt, and began assembling forces at
Messina
Messina (, also , ) is a harbour city and the capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, and the 13th largest city in Italy, with a population of more than 219,000 inhabitants in t ...
and
Reggio, while a fleet was dispatched from Constantinople under a commander named Michael. Abu'l-Abbas, however, did not tarry and as soon as he had suppressed the rebellion, marched against the Byzantines, ravaging the environs of Taormina and launching an unsuccessful siege of
Catania
Catania (, , Sicilian and ) is the second largest municipality in Sicily, after Palermo. Despite its reputation as the second city of the island, Catania is the largest Sicilian conurbation, among the largest in Italy, as evidenced also b ...
before returning to winter in Palermo. In the next spring, he resumed his attack and assaulted . To disrupt the Byzantine preparations, his forces then crossed over to the Italian mainland, sacking Reggio. On his return to Sicily, Abu'l-Abbas defeated a Byzantine fleet and captured thirty of its ships.
Ibrahim II's arrival and the fall of Taormina
In early 902, Emir Ibrahim II was forced into abdication by his subjects, through the intervention of the Abbasid
caliph
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
al-Mu'tadid
Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn Ṭalḥa al-Muwaffaq ( ar, أبو العباس أحمد بن طلحة الموفق), 853/4 or 860/1 – 5 April 902, better known by his regnal name al-Muʿtaḍid bi-llāh ( ar, المعتضد بالله, link=no, ...
. Abu'l-Abbas was named as his successor, and left Sicily for Ifriqiya, leaving his army under the command of his two sons. Ibrahim, in turn, resolved to make an armed
pilgrimage
A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
, and took up the mantle of the
holy war
A religious war or a war of religion, sometimes also known as a holy war ( la, sanctum bellum), is a war which is primarily caused or justified by differences in religion. In the modern period, there are frequent debates over the extent to wh ...
, aiming to go to
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow v ...
after first conquering Byzantine fortresses in Italy. Donning the simple dress of an ascetic, he went to
Sousse
Sousse or Soussa ( ar, سوسة, ; Berber:''Susa'') is a city in Tunisia, capital of the Sousse Governorate. Located south of the capital Tunis, the city has 271,428 inhabitants (2014). Sousse is in the central-east of the country, on the Gulf ...
, where he declared his intention and started gathering volunteers to join him.
Ibrahim and his followers arrived at
Trapani
Trapani ( , ; scn, Tràpani ; lat, Drepanum; grc, Δρέπανον) is a city and municipality (''comune'') on the west coast of Sicily, in Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Trapani. Founded by Elymians, the city is still an imp ...
on 8 July, and immediately set their sights on Taormina, the last major Byzantine stronghold on Sicily. The Byzantines had gathered significant forces there, commanded by the
''droungarios'' of the Fleet Eustathios, Michael Charaktos (apparently the same as the naval commander who arrived in 901, and now served as ''
strategos
''Strategos'', plural ''strategoi'', Latinized ''strategus'', ( el, στρατηγός, pl. στρατηγοί; Doric Greek: στραταγός, ''stratagos''; meaning "army leader") is used in Greek to mean military general. In the Helleni ...
'' of
Calabria
, population_note =
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, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 =
, demographics1_footnotes =
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), and the commandant of Taormina, the ''
patrikios
The patricians (from la, patricius, Greek: πατρίκιος) were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. The distinction was highly significant in the Roman Kingdom, and the early Republic, but its relevance waned aft ...
'' Constantine Karamallos, who was likely also the ''strategos'' of
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
. Rather than waiting to be besieged, the Byzantine commanders led their forces out to meet the Muslims in open combat. According to the Muslim sources, the battle that followed was fiercely contested, and the Byzantines were beginning to gain the upper hand, when Ibrahim ordered the recitation of a line from the
al-Hajj
Al-Ḥajj ( ar, الحج, ; "The Pilgrimage", "The Hajj") is the 22nd chapter ('' sūrah'') of the Quran with 78 verses ('' āyāt''). This surah takes its name from the 27th verse.
Summary
*1-2 The dreadful character of the judgment-day
...
''
sura
A ''surah'' (; ar, سورة, sūrah, , ), is the equivalent of "chapter" in the Qur'an. There are 114 ''surahs'' in the Quran, each divided into '' ayats'' (verses). The chapters or ''surahs'' are of unequal length; the shortest surah ('' Al-K ...
'' of the
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , ...
. Crying for help from God, he entered the fray in person, whereupon the Byzantines were defeated with heavy losses. Most of the remaining Byzantine troops either withdrew to the fortress (modern ) or embarked on their ships.
Ibrahim immediately laid siege to the city, which surrendered on 1 August. The remaining garrison, as well as many of the women and children, were massacred, and the rest sold into slavery. The local bishop, Prokopios, was brought before Ibrahim, who demanded of him to convert to Islam. When the bishop refused, he was tortured and decapitated; his corpse and those of other executed prisoners were burned.
According to an Arab source, the
Byzantine emperor
This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as ...
Leo VI the Wise
Leo VI, called the Wise ( gr, Λέων ὁ Σοφός, Léōn ho Sophós, 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well ...
mourned the fall of Taormina by refusing to wear his crown for seven days, but the Byzantine sources—Patriarch
Nicholas Mystikos
Nicholas I Mystikos or Nicholas I Mysticus ( el, Νικόλαος Α΄ Μυστικός, ''Nikolaos I Mystikos''; 852 – 11 May 925) was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from March 901 to February 907 and from May 912 to his death ...
and the Continuator of
George Hamartolos
George Hamartolos or Hamartolus ( el, ) was a monk at Constantinople under Michael III (842–867) and the author of a chronicle of some importance. Hamartolus is not his name but the epithet he gives to himself in the title of his work: "A compen ...
—are explicit in attributing the loss of Taormina to negligence: according to the latter, the fleet was not sent to relieve the city because it was busy carrying material for the construction of two churches founded by the emperor in Constantinople. The news also spread panic, as a rumour started circulating that Ibrahim intended to march onto Constantinople itself. The Byzantine commanders managed to escape the city and return to Constantinople, but Michael Charaktos accused Eustathios and Constantine Karamallos of treason. The two men were condemned to death, but the intercession of the Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos commuted their sentence to life-long banishment to a monastery.
Aftermath
Ibrahim capitalized on his success by sending raiding parties against various strongholds in the vicinity, forcing either their capitulation and destruction or the payment of tribute. In this manner, Demona,
Rometta
Rometta ( Sicilian: ''Ramietta'') is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Messina in the Italian region Sicily, located about east of Palermo and about west of Messina. It was the last bastion of Sicily controlled by the Ea ...
, and
Aci were captured or forced to pay tribute in token of submission. The locals were encouraged to convert to Islam, or, where they had left their forts and fled for the mountains, the walls were torn down and the wells blocked with stones to make them uninhabitable.
Indefatigable, Ibrahim now crossed over into the mainland in early September, where cities as far as
Naples
Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adm ...
began to prepare to resist his attack. In the end, his advance was stopped at the siege of
Cosenza
Cosenza (; :it:Dialetto cosentino, local dialect: ''Cusenza'', ) is a city in Calabria, Italy. The city centre has a population of approximately 70,000; the urban area counts more than 200,000 inhabitants. It is the capital of the Province of Cosen ...
, where Ibrahim died of
dysentery
Dysentery (UK pronunciation: , US: ), historically known as the bloody flux, is a type of gastroenteritis that results in bloody diarrhea. Other symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and a feeling of incomplete defecation. Complications ...
on October 23. Fortunately for the Aghlabids, the inhabitants of Cosenza, unaware of this, offered terms. This allowed Ibrahim's grandson,
Ziyadat Allah, to end the military campaign with a token success, and return to Sicily laden with booty.
Although a few strongholds in the northeast remained unconquered and in Christian hands, the fall of Taormina marked the effective end of Byzantine Sicily, and the consolidation of Muslim control over the island. It was not until the 960s that the last Byzantine enclaves—including Taormina, which had returned to Byzantine control—would be finally captured, by the
Fatimid Caliphate
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Fatimids, a ...
.
References
Sources
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Further reading
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Taormina, 902 Siege of
900s in the Byzantine Empire
902
900s conflicts
Muslim conquest of Sicily
Sieges of the Arab–Byzantine wars
Taormina
Taormina 902
10th-century massacres
Massacres of Christians
Massacres in the Byzantine Empire