The ''Shizi'' is an eclectic Chinese classic written by Shi Jiao (c. 390–330 BCE), and the earliest text from Chinese philosophical school of ''Zajia'' "

Syncretism Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...

", which combined ideas from the

Hundred Schools of Thought The Hundred Schools of Thought () were philosophies and schools that flourished from the 6th century BC to 221 BC during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period of ancient China. An era of substantial discrimination in China ...

, including

Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...

Daoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...

Mohism Mohism or Moism (, ) was an ancient Chinese philosophy of ethics and logic, rational thought, and science developed by the academic scholars who studied under the ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi (c. 470 BC – c. 391 BC), embodied in an ep ...

, and Legalism. The ''Shizi'' text was written c. 330 BCE in twenty sections, and was well known from the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...

(206 BCE – 220 CE) until the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...

(960–1279) when all copies were lost. Scholars during the

Ming The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han pe ...

(1368–1644) and

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

(1644–1911) dynasties reconstructed the ''Shizi'' from quotations in numerous sources, yet only about 15 percent of the original text was recovered and now extant. Western

sinology Sinology, or Chinese studies, is an academic discipline that focuses on the study of China primarily through Chinese philosophy, language, literature, culture and history and often refers to Western scholarship. Its origin "may be traced to the e ...

has largely ignored the ''Shizi'' and it was one of the last Chinese classics to be translated into English.

Authorship

Little is known about Shi Jiao or Shizi "Master Shi" except for references to his eponymous text. He was probably from the

Warring States period The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...

state of Jin (modern

Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-leve ...

), and employed by the Legalist statesman

Shang Yang Shang Yang (; c. 390 – 338 BC), also known as Wei Yang () and originally surnamed Gongsun, was a Chinese jurist, philosopher, and politician.Antonio S. Cua (ed.), 2003, p. 362, ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy'"The fifth important legali ...

(390–338 BCE), the chief minister of Qin (modern Shanxi) for Duke Xiao. When Duke Xiao died in 338 BCE, his successor King Huiwen ordered Shang Yang to be executed by

dismemberment Dismemberment is the act of cutting, ripping, tearing, pulling, wrenching or otherwise disconnecting the limbs from a living or dead being. It has been practiced upon human beings as a form of capital punishment, especially in connection with ...

and his entire family to be exterminated. Shi Jiao fled to the state of Shu (modern

Sichuan Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of t ...

), where he wrote the ''Shizi'' in 20 sections totaling over 60,000

Chinese characters Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji ...

, and subsequently died. The

Chinese surname Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in China, Taiwan, Korea, Vietnam, and among overseas Chinese communities around the world such as Singapore and Malaysia. Written Chinese names begin with surnames, unlik ...

Shi is commonly written "stone", "history", "teacher", "time", or "scholar" – but hardly ever written ''shi'' "corpse; ceremonial '

personator Personation (rather than ''im''personation) is a primarily- legal term, meaning 'to assume the identity of another person with intent to deceive'. It is often used for the kind of voter fraud where an individual votes in an election, whilst pr ...

' of a dead person". Besides Shi Jiao, there are few examples other than Shi Cong and Shi Bo , who served

Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (; pronounced ; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di (), was the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424. Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dyn ...

(r. 1402–1424). The

given name A given name (also known as a forename or first name) is the part of a personal name quoted in that identifies a person, potentially with a middle name as well, and differentiates that person from the other members of a group (typically a ...

Jiao or Xiao can be pronounced ''jiǎo'' "handsome; beautiful; excellent", ''jiāo'' "associate; have intercourse with", or ''xiáo'' "imitate; false". Although Tang dynasty scholar

Sima Zhen Sima Zhen (; 679–732), courtesy name Zizheng (Tzu-cheng; 子正), was a Tang dynasty Chinese historian born in what is now Jiaozuo, Henan. Sima Zhen was one of the most important commentators on the ''Shiji ''Records of the Grand Histo ...

first noted the ''jiǎo'' in Shi Jiao was pronounced like ''jiǎo'' "twisted", some sources misspell his name as "Shi Xiao".

Textual history

The ''Shizi'' has had a long and dynamic history. The twenty-chapter text was written around 330 BCE, became a famous classic of philosophical Eclecticism, had sections repeatedly lost and recovered from political and military destruction, until only one original chapter existed around 1060 CE, and later scholars partially reconstructed the text from quotes in over seventy

Chinese classics Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo-Confuci ...

. For example, the Syncretist ''Huainanzi'' quotes the ''Shizi'' 27 times. The Chinese Imperial Library catalogs in the standard

Twenty-Four Histories The ''Twenty-Four Histories'' (), also known as the ''Orthodox Histories'' (), are the Chinese official dynastic histories covering from the earliest dynasty in 3000 BC to the Ming dynasty in the 17th century. The Han dynasty official Sima Qia ...

inventory the ''Shizi'' text in twenty sections from the Han through Tang dynasties, and then only one section in the Song dynasty. The most complete reconstruction was done in 1812, but even it only recovered about 15 percent of the original text (about 10,000 of 60,000 characters). Technically speaking, Paul Fischer describes the ''Shizi'' text as "simultaneously lost and extant". The oldest surviving reference to Shizi is found in the (91 BCE) ''

Shiji ''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese his ...

'' "Scribal Record" biography of Xunzi (c. 312–230 BCE).

And (in addition to Xun Zi, the state of) Zhao also had Gongsun Long, who made arguments about the similarity and difference of hardness and whiteness, and the sayings of Ju Zi; (the state of) Wei had Li Kui (with his) teaching on fully using the powers of the land; (the state of) Chu had Shizi, Chang Lu, and Yu Zi from A in it. Following from Meng Zi down until Yu Zi, the world has their writings in abundance; therefore (I) will not discuss their biographies. (tr. Fischer)

The (8 BCE) ''Bielu'' "Separate Records" was a detailed bibliography of holdings in the Imperial Library, including the ''Shizi''. It was begun by the imperial librarian Liu Xiang, and after his death, was completed by his son Liu Xin. Although this early

library catalog A library catalog (or library catalogue in British English) is a register of all bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries, such as a network of libraries at several locations. A catalog for a group of libraries is also ...

is no longer extant, there are two surviving ''Bielu'' fragments that mention the ''Shizi''. First, Liu Xiang's own ''Sun Qing shulu'' "Sun Qing Record" says: "The state of Chu had Shizi, Chang Lu Zi, and Yu Zi, and all wrote texts, but (these) were not of the model of former kings, and none followed the methods of Kong Zi. Only Meng Zi and Xun Qing were able to respect Kong Zi." Second, the ''Shiji'' commentary of Pei Yin (fl. 438) more fully quotes it:

Liu Xiang’s ''Bie lu'' says: "(The ''Shi ji'' says :) 'Chu had Shizi ...' (but I) suspect (it should have) said he (lived) in Shu (not Chu). Now, according to the ''Shizi'' text, he was from Jin, (with the) given name Jiao, and was a retainer of Qin chief minister Wei Yang. (When) Wei Yang, the Shang Lord, planned things and designed strategies, and established laws to regulate the people, (he) always devised them with Jiao. (When) the Shang Lord was punished, Jiao feared (that he) also would be killed, and thereupon fled and ran away to Shu. (There he) himself created this text in twenty sections, (with) altogether more than sixty thousand words. (When he) died, (he was) accordingly buried in Shu." (tr. Fischer)

Liu Xin abridged the ''Bielu'' catalog into the (6 BCE) ''Qilue'' "Seven Summaries", and the historian

Ban Gu Ban Gu (AD32–92) was a Chinese historian, politician, and poet best known for his part in compiling the '' Book of Han'', the second of China's 24 dynastic histories. He also wrote a number of '' fu'', a major literary form, part prose ...

used both catalogs to compile the '' Yiwenzhi'' “Literature Record” chapter of his (92 CE) ''

Hanshu The ''Book of Han'' or ''History of the Former Han'' (Qián Hàn Shū,《前汉书》) is a history of China finished in 111AD, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. I ...

'' "Han History". It lists the ''Shizi'' as one of twenty texts in the Syncretist section: "''Shizi'' in twenty sections. (His) given name was Jiao, and (he was) from Lu; the Qin chief minister, the Shang Lord, took him as a teacher, (and when Shang) Yang died, Jiao fled to Shu." These earliest (91 BCE to 92 CE) references generally agree except for Shizi's home state. Was he from Chu (''Shiji''), Shu (''Bielu'' author's suspicion), Jin (''Bielu'' author's text), or Lu (''Hanshu'')? Fischer concludes he was from Jin, primarily because the testimony of the ''Shizi'' itself, as specifically cited by Liu Xiang". The Tang historian

Wei Zheng Wei Zheng (580–643), courtesy name Xuancheng, posthumously known as Duke Wenzhen of Zheng, was a Chinese politician and historian. He served as a chancellor of the Tang dynasty for about 13 years during the reign of Emperor Taizong. He was al ...

's (656) ''

Suishu The ''Book of Sui'' (''Suí Shū'') is the official history of the Sui dynasty. It ranks among the official Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written by Yan Shigu, Kong Yingda, and Zhangsun Wuji, with Wei Zheng as the lead author. ...

'' "Sui History" first described ''Shizi'' chapters being lost: "The ''Shizi'' in twenty sections, table of contents in one section. In the Liang (502–557) there were (only) nineteen sections. Authored by Shi Jiao, chief retainer of Qin chief minister Wei Yang. Nine of its sections were lost, and in the Wei (220–265) “Yellow Beginning” (reign era; 220–227), (it was) continued." Wei Zheng says that during the reign of Wei Emperor

Cao Pi Cao Pi () ( – 29 June 226), courtesy name Zihuan, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the second son of Cao Cao, a warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty, but the eldest s ...

the nine lost chapters were "continued" (''xu'' ), which Fischer interprets to mean replacing an incomplete ''Shizi'' copy in the imperial collection with a complete copy from a private library. The (445) ''

Hou Hanshu The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Late ...

'' "Later Han History" only mentions the ''Shizi'' once in a quotation, but Tang dynasty crown prince Li Xian's (677) ''Hou Hanshu'' commentary is informative.

Shizi was from Jin, had the given name of "Jiao," and was the retainer of Qin chief minister Wei Yang. (When Wei) Yang planned strategies (he) always devised them with Jiao. (When) the Shang Lord was punished, (Shizi) feared (that he) also would be killed, and therefore fled and ran away to Shu, (where he) made a text in twenty sections: nineteen sections elaborate the threads of the Way, virtue, goodness, and propriety, and one section speaks of the nine regions, strategic passes, and the places where river springs originate. (tr. Fischer

The ''Shizi'' text was largely lost sometime between the writing of the 1060 '' New Tang History'' and 1345 '' History of Song''. The (1739) Ming and (1927) Qing dynasty imperial catalogs do not list the ''Shizi''. One private catalog, Chen Kui's (1174) ''Zhongxing Guange shumu'' lists the text with only one section written on two bundles of bamboo strips (''pian'' ). Examining Chinese history between 1060 and 1174 when all full copies of the ''Shizi'' text were lost, Fischer suggests the Jingkang Incident when the invading

Jurchen Jurchen may refer to: * Jurchen people, Tungusic people who inhabited the region of Manchuria until the 17th century ** Haixi Jurchens, a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty ** Jianzhou Jurchens, a grouping of ...

soldiers of the Jin Dynasty besieged and sacked

Kaifeng Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...

, the

Northern Song dynasty Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a ...

capital. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Chinese scholars worked on reconstructing the ''Shizi'' text from quotations. The (c. 1691) ''Qianqingtang shumu'' "Thousand Acre Hall Bibliography", written by Huang Yuji , lists a ''Shizi'' in two sections that was reconstructed by Xu Yuantai around 1565. Although it was lost, six other ''Shizi'' reconstructions are still extant; Chen Zhengxue (1640), Hui Dong (1730), Ren Zhaolin (1788), Zhang Zongyuan (1796), Sun Xingyan (1806), and Wang Jipei (1812). The version of Wang Jipei is considered the most authoritative. The sources for these reconstructions were based on over seventy texts that quoted the ''Shizi''. Those containing the most quotes are:

Ouyang Xun Ouyang Xun (; 557–641), courtesy name Xinben (), was a Chinese calligrapher, politician, and writer of the early Tang dynasty. He was born in Hunan, Changsha, to a family of government officials; and died in modern Anhui province. Achievements ...

's 604 '' Typological Collections from the Classics and Other Literature'', Yu Shinan's c. 615 " Copied Writings from the North Hall", Wei Zheng's 631 '' Essentials of Government from Many Books'', Li Shan's 658 '' Notes on the Anthology of Literature'', and Li Fang's 983 '' Taiping Imperial Reader''. The ''Qun shu zhiyao'' abridgement, comprising over 5,000 characters (out of the original 60,000), quotes 13 of the original 20 chapters, and represents almost half of the reconstructed ''Shizi'' text. Fischer summarizes the ''Shizi'' as "both unique and paradigmatic for being the first Syncretist text from a time when eclectic authorship—in both content and form—was the norm. We are fortunate that several Ming and Qing scholars made the effort to reconstruct it, that so much of it was quoted by Wei Zheng in the Tang dynasty, and that Wei’s work was preserved in Japan even while it was lost in China."

The reconstructed ''Shizi'' contains 15 of the original 20 sections or chapters, the first 13 of which primarily derive from Wei Zheng's ''Qun shu zhiyao''. The contents of are shown below, from the Fischer's translations. In addition to these 15 titled chapters, the reconstructed ''Shizi'' comprises 194 ''yiwen'' "fragments" from source texts that quote the ''Shizi'' without specifying the chapter. Nineteen of these fragments have doubtful authenticity because they are only attested in sources later than 1127 CE when the text was probably lost. The ''Shizi'' includes some humorous teachings, such as this anecdote about the importance of naming.

(The state of) Qi had a person named Tian Guo who named his dog "Riches" and his son "Happiness." (Once) when (he) was about to perform a sacrifice, the dog entered the house. Guo yelled at it saying: "Riches, get out!" A shamaness (heard this and) said: "(That) was not auspicious." (Later,) Guo experienced misfortune: (his) eldest son died. Weeping over him, (he) cried: "Happiness!" and (he thus) did not seem to be sad (to those who heard him). (tr. Fischer)

Key concepts

According to Fischer, Shizi's message is based upon four key ideas: self-cultivation, timeliness, humility, and objectivity. "With the single exception of self-cultivation ( or ), none of these ideals appear as technical terms in the text. Unlike the more usual advice to be good (), proper (), or virtuous (), even generalized terms for timeliness, humility, and objectivity are not used; rather, the advice must be inferred from the narrative." Self-cultivation. The beginning of Chapter 1 recommends self-cultivation through broad learning.

To learn without tiring is that by which one cultivates the self; to teach without becoming bored is that by which one cultivates the people. (If) a cocoon is abandoned and not cultivated, then it will rot away and be discarded. (But if) a female artisan extracts the silk, then this can be used to make beautiful brocade, (fit even for) a great ruler to wear to court. (Your) person is (like) a cocoon: (if) it is abandoned and not cultivated, then (your capacity to) think and act will rot away. (tr. Fischer)

One ''Shizi'' fragment (188), "Imitate the conch and oyster and close the door", is apparently related to self-cultivation through

Daoist meditation Taoist meditation (, ), known in Chinese as "Xiu Dao", refers to the traditional meditative practices associated with the Chinese philosophy and religion of Taoism, including concentration, mindfulness, contemplation, and visualization. The ea ...

Timeliness. Acting in a timely manner is a recurring textual theme, frequently phrased in terms of '' shen'' "spirit; god, deity; spiritual, supernatural" translated as " spiritous". Chapter 2 says:

Misfortunes, at the beginning, are easily dispelled. As for those which cannot be dispelled, avoid them. (Because when) they are fully manifested, (you might) desire to dispel them (but will) be unable, and (you might) desire to avoid them (but will) be unable. Those who deal with (problems) while (still) spiritous: their activities are few but (their) merit is great. ... (When) a house burns and someone saves it, then (we) know their virtue. (But) the elderly who daub chimney cracks to guard (against fire), thereby living their whole lives without the misfortune of stray flames (causing a fire): (their) virtue (remains) unknown! ... Misfortunes also have "chimneys," and (if) worthies were to travel the world to aid in "daubing" them, then the world would have no military suffering, yet none would know their virtue. Therefore it is said: "Sagely people rectify (things) when (they) are yet spiritous .e., inchoate stupid people contend with (things) after (they) have become obvious." (tr. Fischer)

The following context clarifies the semantics of "spiritous", "This 'spiritousness' is the beginning of the myriad things, the leading thread of the myriad affairs." Humility. The Shizi teaches that rulers should have humility when seeking good ministers, as well as have eminence when effectively ruling. For instance, this dialogue between Confucius and his disciple Zixia,

"Kong Zi said: 'Zixia, do you know how rulers function as rulers?' Zixia replied: '(If) fish lose the water (they are in), then (they) will die, (but) if water loses the fish (in it, it) is still water.' Kong Zi said: 'You know it!'." An effective ruler needs both to practice humility and to pursue self-cultivation through study. (tr. Fischer)

Objectivity. The text recommends that rulers objectively hire, fire, promote, and demote officials based upon the verifiable results of performance, rather than upon the traditional criteria of nepotism and hereditary rank.

The stupid and wise (decisions) of the many ministers are daily presented before (you): choose those whom are knowledgeable about affairs and order their plans (to be carried out). Those whom the many ministers promote are daily presented before (you): choose those whom are knowledgeable about people and order their promotions (to be carried out). The orderly and disorderly (effects) of the many ministers are daily presented before (you): choose those whom are competent in undertaking tasks and order their governance (to be carried out). ... (If you) use the worthy and employ the competent, (then you) will govern without exertion. (If you) rectify names and examine reality, (then you) will be revered without (having to) punish. (If you) arrive at the facts and see (them) purely, then truth and fallacy will not be obscured. (tr. Fischer)

While many Masters texts discussed the importance of employing worthies and rectifying names, the ''Shizi'' exceptionally argued for detached objectivity through "examining reality" () and "seeing purely" ().

Syncretism

The ''Shizi'' is the oldest extant text from the ''Zajia''

School, which is described as the "eclectic, discriminating, selective, and consolidating trend in philosophical literature". Shizi's writings were popular for centuries before the comprehensive Syncretist collections (c. 239 BCE) ''

Lüshi Chunqiu The ''Lüshi Chunqiu'', also known in English as ''Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals'', is an encyclopedic Chinese classic text compiled around 239 BC under the patronage of the Qin Dynasty Chancellor Lü Buwei. In the evaluation of Micha ...

'' and (c. 139 BCE) ''

Huainanzi The ''Huainanzi'' is an ancient Chinese text that consists of a collection of essays that resulted from a series of scholarly debates held at the court of Liu An, Prince of Huainan, sometime before 139. The ''Huainanzi'' blends Daoist, Confuci ...

''. The Han scholar

Dong Zhongshu Dong Zhongshu (; 179–104 BC) was a Chinese philosopher, politician, and writer of the Han Dynasty. He is traditionally associated with the promotion of Confucianism as the official ideology of the Chinese imperial state. He apparently favored ...

(179–104 BCE) used the Syncretic method to combine early Confucianism with Naturalist and Legalist thought, and to promote Confucianism into the new official ideology of Imperial China. Ultimately, Fischer describes Master Shi as "a man of his times. His syncretism made explicit the eclecticism of other authors of his day and demonstrated that many of their ideas were not necessarily incompatible.") Consider this statement that six ''Zi'' "Masters" had substantially similar doctrines:

Mo Zi valued impartiality; Kong Zi valued public-mindedness, Huang Zi valued centeredness, Tian Zi valued equanimity, Lie Zi valued emptiness, and Liao Zi valued dispelling closed-mindedness. Their schools mutually denied each other, stopping (only) after several generations: but all were trapped in selfishness. Heaven, thearch, sovereign, monarch, governor, lord: all are (words for) "ruler." Immense, wide open, vast, wide, broad, large, spacious, encompassing, supreme, eminent, big: all are (words for) "great." More than ten names but the actuality is one. If (you) make impartiality, public-mindedness, emptiness, equanimity, centeredness, peace, and dispelling closed-mindedness one actuality, then there will be no mutual negating. (tr. Fischer)

This passage is unusual because pre-Qin masters texts typically refer to other masters with disparagement or differentiation. The '' Zhuangzi'', for instance, describes the early schools of Mohism whose, "divergent distortions were so different that they called each other "aberrant Mohists." They reviled each other with their disputations over "hard" and "white" and over "sameness" and "difference," as well as with their rejoinders to each other over the disparity between "odd" and "even"." The Chinese lexicographers Yong and Peng identify this ''Shizi'' passage, with six synonyms meaning ''jun'' "ruler" and 11 synonyms meaning ''da'' "great; big", as the source for the (c. 3rd century BCE) ''

Erya The ''Erya'' or ''Erh-ya'' is the first surviving Chinese dictionary. Bernhard Karlgren ( 1931:49) concluded that "the major part of its glosses must reasonably date from the 3rd century BC." Title Chinese scholars interpret the first title cha ...

'' dictionary (1.2–1.3) definitions that list 10 synonyms meaning ''jun'' and 39 meaning ''da'' . The ''zhuzi'' "The Masters/Philosophers" category of the '' Yiwenzhi'' "Treatise on Literature" in the ''

'' subdivided philosophical books into ten schools: Confucianism (), Daoism (), School of Yin-Yang (), Legalism (), School of Names or Designatism (), Mohism (), Diplomatic (), Syncretism (), Agriculturalism (), and Miscellaneous (). It summarized Syncretism: "Syncretists probably emerged from the Councilor office. (They) combine Ruism and Mohism, unite Designatism and Legalism, know that (proper) state formation has (all) these, and see that (proper) kingly government is entirely interconnected: these are its strengths. (But if) the dissolute practice it, then (they) become dissipated and have no foundation to (which they can) return." The reconstructed ''Shizi'' text refers to most of these schools of thought.

or Ruism was centered upon the teachings and principles of Kongzi or Confucius. The ''Shizi'' upholds several Confucianist concepts, including '' ren'' "goodness; humaneness", '' yi'' "propriety; righteousness", '' li'' "ritual; courtesy", and '' zhengming'' "rectification of names". The text cites Confucius 17 times, more than any other person, and several quotes are not recorded elsewhere. For instance, this story about

Zichan Gongsun Qiao (), died 522 BC, was better known by his courtesy name Zichan () ( WG: Tzu Ch'an). From 544 BC until his death, he served as the chief minister of the State of Zheng. His ancestral surname was Ji (姬), and clan name Guo (國). As pol ...

when he was prime minister for Duke Jian (r. 564– 530 BCE) of Zheng.

Zheng Duke Jian said to Zichan: "Joyless drinking and unsounded bells and drums are my responsibilities (to repair). A misruled state, a disordered court, and not attaining (our) aims in dealing with the state sovereigns are your responsibilities (to repair). (If) you do not meddle in my pleasure, I will not meddle in your court." From then on, Zichan governed Zheng and the city gates did not close, the state had no robbers or criminals, and (its) roads had no hungry people (on them). Kong Zi said: "Even with Zheng Duke Jian’s love of pleasure, still, even if (he) had held court while hugging a bell, it would have been acceptable." (tr. Fischer)

emphasized universal love and

meritocracy Meritocracy (''merit'', from Latin , and ''-cracy'', from Ancient Greek 'strength, power') is the notion of a political system in which economic goods and/or political power are vested in individual people based on talent, effort, and achiev ...

, in which rulers employ worthy ministers regardless of their social class. The ''Shizi'' likewise stressed meritocracy, for instance,

In ancient times, enlightened kings in pursuit of worthies did not avoid those far or near, nor discuss (their) status or lack thereof, (but rather they) denigrated (their own) positions in order to yield to the worthy, and diminished (their own) persons in order to put the (worthy) official first. Thus, Yao followed Shun into the midst of the fields, faced north to look at him, and did not fuss about a show of ritual. This is why former kings were able to rectify heaven and earth and is the reason why (they could) benefit the myriad things. (tr. Fischer)

Mohism repudiated warfare, and Chapter 14 "Stopping the Chu Army" tells a legend about how

Mozi Mozi (; ; Latinized as Micius ; – ), original name Mo Di (), was a Chinese philosopher who founded the school of Mohism during the Hundred Schools of Thought period (the early portion of the Warring States period, –221 BCE). The ancie ...

convinced the king of Chu not to use

Lu Ban Lu Ban (–444BC). was a Chinese architect or master carpenter, structural engineer, and inventor, during the Zhou Dynasty. He is revered as the Chinese Deity (Patron) of builders and contractors. Life Lu Ban was born in the state of Lu; a few ...

's newly invented "meets-with-heaven" mobile scaling ladder to attack the weaker state of

Song A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetiti ...

. When Mozi asked the king what sort of person would refuse his own sumptuous, decorated carriage and want to steal his neighbor's dilapidated cart, the king replied, "He definitely has a stealing sickness". Mozi responded, "Chu territory is two thousand kilometers square, (while) Song territory is (only) two hundred kilometers square: these are like the decorated carriage and the dilapidated cart!", which convinced the king to cancel the attack. School of Names or Logicians focused upon the relationship between words and reality. The ''Shizi'' links the Logician doctrine of ''fen'' "separation; distribution; allocation" with the Confucian rectification of names.

Joseph Needham Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham (; 9 December 1900 – 24 March 1995) was a British biochemist, historian of science and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science and technology, i ...

writes that the primary meaning of ''fen'' is "separation", but the ''Shizi'' uses it to mean "the allotment of duties to persons by the ruler or lord", comparable with Greek '' Moira'' "portion of the whole". Chapter 5 "Allocation" favors explicitly allocating tasks and responsibilities to specific ministers, through the "rectification" of ministerial titles and "allocation" of the duties that accompany any given position.

Heaven and earth produce the myriad things and sages categorize them. (They) categorize things by means of establishing allocations, and facilitate (human) affairs by means of instituting (political) offices. Ruler and minister, father and son, superior and inferior, elder and youth, honored and despised, close and distant all fulfilling their allocations is called order. Concern that fulfills (its) allocation is called good; giving that fulfills (its) allocation is called proper; contemplation that fulfills (its) allocation is called wise; action that fulfills (its) allocation is called appropriate; words that fulfill (their) allocation are called faithful. After (you) have fulfilled all (these) allocations, (you) will become a complete person. (tr. Fischer)

School of Yin Yang The School of Naturalists or the School of Yin-Yang () was a Warring States-era philosophy that synthesized the concepts of yin-yang and the Five Elements. Overview Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school. His theory attempted to expla ...

or Naturalists believed heaven and earth were composed of '' qi'', constantly transforming through '' yin-yang'' and '' wuxing''. The ''Shizi'' describes this school's correlative cosmology idea that the universe responds to the ruler's morality.

Goodness, propriety, sageliness, and wisdom are joined with heaven and earth. If heaven did not canopy (them), (then) how could the people depend upon (it) and gaze into (it)? If the earth did not support (them), (then ) how could the people live (from it) and move (on it)? If sages did not order (them), (then) how could the people be guided and led (by them)? This is why heaven canopies them, the earth supports them, and sages order them. The person of the sage is like the sun. The sun (is only) one foot (in diameter), (but its) brightness fills heaven and earth. The person of the sage is (also) small, but it illuminates places that are distant. Sages rectify themselves and the four quadrants are (thereby) ordered. (tr. Fischer)

was based upon the universal '' Dao'' "Way" and advocated '' wuwei'' "effortlessnesss", '' ziran'' "naturalness", and simplicity. The ''Shizi'' mentions the Daoist paradigm of a mysterious cosmic Way. "Guard the Way firmly, (even in) extremity, then (you may) make light of kingship or dukedom." It also refers to three

Daoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Tao ...

masters, Tianzi (Tian Pian ), Liezi, and Lao Laizi (sometimes identified as

Laozi Laozi (), also known by numerous other names, was a semilegendary ancient Chinese Taoist philosopher. Laozi ( zh, ) is a Chinese honorific, generally translated as "the Old Master". Traditional accounts say he was born as in the state ...

): "Tian Zi valued equanimity, Lie Zi valued emptiness, Liao Zi valued dispelling closed-mindedness". Legalism was based upon the idea of rule by law, through rewards and punishments. Even though Shizi was a retainer of the famous Legalist Shang Yang, his reconstructed writings rarely refer to Legalism. Two examples: "(If) rewards and punishments follow names (then) the people will all be respectful.", "(When) the vehicle is light and the road is short, then the whip and the goad are not needed. That for which the whip and goad are needed is a long road or a heavy load. Punishments and laws are the whip and goad for the people."

Agriculturalism Agriculturalism, also known as the School of Agrarianism, the School of Agronomists, the School of Tillers, and in Chinese as the ''Nongjia'' (), was an early agrarian Chinese philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitariani ...

advocated for rulers to participate in farming activities, following the example of their culture hero

Shennong Shennong (), variously translated as "Divine Farmer" or "Divine Husbandman", born Jiang Shinian (), was a mythological Chinese ruler known as the first Yan Emperor who has become a deity in Chinese and Vietnamese folk religion. He is vene ...

"Divine Farmer", who invented agriculture. The ''Shizi'' does not directly refer to Agriculturalism but mentions Shennong five times. For instance, "Shun personally had (some) southside acres (of farmland), (while his) wife had fields of mulberry trees; Shen Nong likewise tilled and ruled. (This) is how (they) encouraged tilling."

References

;Sources * * * * * * * *

Authorship

Textual history

Contents

Key concepts

Syncretism

References

Further reading