Sayf Ad-Din Inal
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Al-Malik al-Ashraf Sayf al-Din Abu an-Nasr Inal al-'Ala'i az-Zahiri an-Nasiri al-Ajrud (better known as Sayf al-Din Inal also spelled Saif al-Din Aynal) (1381 – 26 February 1461) was the 13th Burji Mamluk sultan of
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
, ruling between 1453–1461.


Early life and career

Sayf ad-Din Inal was born in
Cairo Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
in 1381 to a
Circassia Circassia (; also known as Cherkessia in some sources; ady, Адыгэ Хэку, Адыгей, lit=, translit=Adıgə Xəku, Adıgey; ; ota, چرکسستان, Çerkezistan; ) was a country and a historical region in the along the northeast ...
n merchant father. He was originally bought by trader Ala' ad-Din, who gave him the '' nisbah'' "al-Ala'i." Ala' ad-Din sold Inal to Sultan az-Zahir Barquq, founder of the
Burji dynasty The Burji or Circassian Mamluk ( ar, المماليك الشركس) dynasty of Circassian origin, ruled Egypt from 1382 until 1517, during the Mamluk Sultanate. The Circassian community in Cairo especially flourished during this time. Political p ...
, in 1397, hence his second ''nisbah'' "az-Zahiri." Inal undertook military training during his service with Barquq. Following Barquq's death, Sultan
an-Nasir Faraj Al-Nasir Faraj or Nasir-ad-Din Faraj ( Circassian: Фэрадж ан-Насир) (Urdu; Arabic; Persian: ; r. 1399–1412 CE) also Faraj ibn Barquq was born in 1386 and succeeded his father Sayf-ad-Din Barquq as the second Sultan of the Burji dy ...
emancipated Inal and enlisted him in his ''khassakiyah'' ("personal retinue"). Inal thereby acquired the additional ''nisbah'' "an-Nasiri." He gained the nickname "al-Arjud" because of the scantiness of his beard. In 1421 al-Faraj assigned him the rank of ''jamdar'' ("master of the robes.") Under the short-lived sultanate of Ahmad ibn Shaykh in 1421 he was made "''emir'' of ten 'mamluks''" He was later promoted to the rank of "''emir'' of drums" by Sultan Barsbay in 1422.Natho, 2010, p
214
/ref> Inal continued to rise through the military's ranks, distinguishing himself as a commander, according to historian
Moshe Sharon Moshe Sharon ( he, משה שָׁרוֹן; born December 18, 1937) is an Israeli historian of Islam. He is currently Professor Emeritus of Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem where he serves as Chair in Bahá ...
. In 1427 Barsbay promoted Inal to "''emir'' of forty." In 1428 he was appointed ''
na'ib Nawab ( Balochi: نواب; ar, نواب; bn, নবাব/নওয়াব; hi, नवाब; Punjabi : ਨਵਾਬ; Persian, Punjabi , Sindhi, Urdu: ), also spelled Nawaab, Navaab, Navab, Nowab, Nabob, Nawaabshah, Nawabshah or Nobab, ...
'' ("governor" or "viceroy") of Gaza. During his term as ''na'ib'', Inal was praised for the "justice" of his rule by Bertrandon de la Brocquière who visited the city in 1432. Inal had the
minaret A minaret (; ar, منارة, translit=manāra, or ar, مِئْذَنة, translit=miʾḏana, links=no; tr, minare; fa, گل‌دسته, translit=goldaste) is a type of tower typically built into or adjacent to mosques. Minarets are generall ...
of the Kateb al-Welaya Mosque restored on 30 July 1432.Sharon, 2009, p.
162
/ref> Later in 1432, he took part in the Mamluk campaign against the
Aq Qoyunlu The Aq Qoyunlu ( az, Ağqoyunlular , ) was a culturally Persianate,Kaushik Roy, ''Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750'', (Bloomsbury, 2014), 38; "Post-Mongol Persia and Iraq were ruled by two tribal confederations: Akkoyunlu (Wh ...
confederation of Amid (Diyarbakir) alongside Sultan Barsbay. As a reward for his efforts in the Amid campaign, in 1433, Barsbay promoted Inal to "''emir'' of one hundred, commander of one thousand" in Cairo. He was also reassigned as ''na'ib'' of
Ruha In Mandaeism, Rūha ( myz, ࡓࡅࡄࡀ, lit=spirit/breath; also known as Namrūs or Hiwat (Ewath; myz, ࡏࡅࡀࡕ)) is the queen of the World of Darkness (''alma ḏ-hšuka'') or underworld. She rules the underworld together with her son Ur ...
(Edessa), a post which he reluctantly accepted, literally refusing the new assignment in the morning then relenting before the end of the day. Towards the end of Barsbay's rule, in 1437, Inal was appointed ''na'ib'' of
Safad Safed (known in Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an elevat ...
. During the sultanate of Jaqmaq, in 1442, Inal was appointed to the high-ranking post of ''dawadar kabir'' ("grand executive secretary") and became a member of the ruling council. In 1445 Sultan Jaqmaq made him ''atabik al-asakir'' (" commander-in-chief of the armies.") On 2 July 1450 Inal, Jaqmaq and Tamam min Abd al-Raziq, the ''emir al-majlis'' ("Commander of the Council"), were encircled by the ''julban'' on their way to the citadel. The ''julban'' demanded the release of ten ''mamluks'' recently dismissed upon Tanam's orders. Inal managed to appease them, promising the release of the ''mamluk'' prisoners. Before reaching the citadel they came across Zayn ad-Din Yahya, the ''ustadar'' ("major-domo") and a leading figure of the ''julban'', and beat him with their
cudgel A club (also known as a cudgel, baton, bludgeon, truncheon, cosh, nightstick, or impact weapon) is a short staff or stick, usually made of wood, wielded as a weapon since prehistoric times. There are several examples of blunt-force trauma caused ...
s forcing him to flee. The detained ''mamluks'' were freed the following day.


Reign


Ascension to the sultanate

Jaqmaq abdicated the sultanate in 1453 in favor of his 18-year-old son, al-Mansur Uthman, and died later that year. Under pressure from powerful ''
mamluk Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
s'' who refused to recognize Uthman's authority, Inal agreed to lead a revolt against the new sultan. On 12 March his forces besieged the
Cairo Citadel The Citadel of Cairo or Citadel of Saladin ( ar, قلعة صلاح الدين, Qalaʿat Salāḥ ad-Dīn) is a medieval Islamic-era fortification in Cairo, Egypt, built by Salah ad-Din (Saladin) and further developed by subsequent Egyptian ruler ...
, arrested all of the royal ''emirs'' and officially renounced their loyalty to Uthman, demanding the installation of Inal as sultan. The 15th-century Egyptian historian
Ibn Taghribirdi Jamal al-Din Yusuf bin al-Amir Sayf al-Din Taghribirdi ( ar, جمال الدين يوسف بن الأمير سيف الدين تغري بردي), or Abū al-Maḥāsin Yūsuf ibn Taghrī-Birdī, or Ibn Taghribirdi (2 February 1411— 5 June 1470; ...
noted that most of the city's residents conducted their business as usual, while some went to Rumayla Square to "enjoy the sight of battle."Raymond, 2000, p
169
/ref> Despite having a much larger force, most of Uthman's Zahiri ''mamluks'' abandoned their support for him by 16 March when the ''Caliph'' al-Qa'im and the top ''
qadi A qāḍī ( ar, قاضي, Qāḍī; otherwise transliterated as qazi, cadi, kadi, or kazi) is the magistrate or judge of a '' sharīʿa'' court, who also exercises extrajudicial functions such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and mino ...
s'' ("judges") passed a resolution stripping Uthman of his executive authority. Inal, at age 73, was thereby proclaimed sultan and entered the citadel later that week, capturing Uthman. On 9 April Inal had Uthman imprisoned in
Alexandria Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandria ...
.


Internal unrest

Inal's reign was particularly noted by historians for the severe absence of restraint among the roughly 1,000 ''mamluks'' under his direct authority, known as the ''julban'' or ''ajlab''. The ''julban'' were responsible for mass disturbances throughout the sultanate.Hawting, 2005, p. 50. While Inal and his close circle of officials were notably less tyrannical and brutal than their predecessors, the transgressions of the ''julban'' created an environment of fear and insecurity. According to historian
Sir William Muir Sir William Muir (27 April 1819 – 11 July 1905) was a Scottish Orientalist, and colonial administrator, Principal of the University of Edinburgh and Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Provinces of British India. Life He was born at Gl ...
, "for the first time both the rich and the poor had to protect their properties by trench and wall." Because of the frequent raids of markets and shops, many store owners closed their businesses to protect and protest the actions of the ''mamluks''. On 15 June 1455 Inal faced a mutiny by roughly 500 of his Circassian ''mamluks'' after assembling them to launch an expedition against
Bedouin The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu (; , singular ) are nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The Bedouin originated in the Syrian Desert and A ...
tribesmen invading al-Buhayra Province (the
Delta Delta commonly refers to: * Delta (letter) (Δ or δ), a letter of the Greek alphabet * River delta, at a river mouth * D ( NATO phonetic alphabet: "Delta") * Delta Air Lines, US * Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 that causes COVID-19 Delta may also ...
region.)Levanoni, 1995, p.
128
/ref>Muir, 1896, p
157
/ref> Inal had rejected their requests for customary camels as a result of the poor economic conditions of the sultanate. Consequently, the ''mamluks'' rallied in Cairo's horse market, refusing to participate in the expedition. Being leaderless, the mutineers were organized and directed by the higher ranking ''mamluks''. They attempted to assassinate Yunus al-Aqba'i, Inal's executive secretary, as he departed from the Cairo Citadel, but his bodyguards warded off the attackers, wounding a few of them. The mutineers were then joined by the recently dismissed Zahiris (the faction which Inal originally hailed from) and subsequently besieged the citadel, demanding higher salaries and the handing over of Yunus.Natho, 2010, p
216
/ref> Afterward, Inal sent disciplinary officers to assuage the ''mamluks concerns, but to no avail. The ''mamluks'' proceeded to raid Yunus's house, but were unsuccessful and returned to the horse market. There, Inal sent a herald to offer the ''mamluks'' amnesty and their wounded compensation, but they refused and severely beat the herald. After the ''mamluks'' blocked the street to the citadel preventing the royal ''emirs'' from leaving. Inal dispatched four ''emirs'' to negotiate with the ''mamluks'', but they were taken hostage until their demands were met.Levanoni, 1995, p
129
/ref> The
mutiny Mutiny is a revolt among a group of people (typically of a military, of a crew or of a crew of pirates) to oppose, change, or overthrow an organization to which they were previously loyal. The term is commonly used for a rebellion among member ...
convinced Caliph al-Qa'im to abandon his support for Inal and join the uprising. With the caliph providing symbolic legitimacy to the ''mamluks'', they took up arms and assaulted the citadel. Finding himself faced with no alternatives, Inal launched an offensive against the mutineers. The Royal Mamluk Guard of the citadel resisted the rebels and eventually dispersed the Zahiris. Inal had al-Qa'im arrested and imprisoned in Alexandria. He was replaced by
al-Mustanjid Abū'l-Muẓaffar Yusuf ibn Muhammad al-Muqtafi ( ar, أبو المظفّر يوسف بن محمد المقتفي; 1124 – 20 December 1170) better known by his regnal name Al-Mustanjid bi'llah ( ar, المستنجد بالله) was the Abbasid ...
. All ''mamluks'' with the exception of the royal guard were removed from their positions in citadel and some of the mutineers were either imprisoned or exiled. Despite the insurrection, Inal supplied the ''mamluks'' with the camels they sought and the expedition to al-Buhayra was carried out. The young ''mamluk'' soldiers mutinied again in December 1456 demanding increased pay to which Inal bowed without resistance or punishment. Inal was generally unable to quell the countrywide unrest carried out by the ''mamluks''. Several of the sultan's ''emirs'' were assaulted and cities and towns were raided.Muir, 1896, p
158
/ref> Worshipers, including women, were harassed at the
Mosque of Amr ibn al-As The Mosque of Amr ibn al-As ( ar, جامع عمرو بن العاص), or Taj al-Jawame' ( ar, تاج الجوامِع, lit=Crown of Mosques), or Masjid Ahl ar-Rayah ( ar, مسجد اهل الرّاية, lit=Mosque of the Banner Bearers), or Ja ...
. In one incident the sultan himself was chased and attacked with stones, forcing him to briefly flee into the citadel's ''
harem Harem (Persian: حرمسرا ''haramsarā'', ar, حَرِيمٌ ''ḥarīm'', "a sacred inviolable place; harem; female members of the family") refers to domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A hare ...
''.


Foreign policy

Friendly relations between Burji Egypt and the expanding
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
were fostered during Inal's reign. The Ottomans' capture of
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
and later conquests of
Serbia Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
were well received in Cairo which hosted several festivities celebrating the Byzantine capital's
fall Autumn, also known as fall in American English and Canadian English, is one of the four temperate seasons on Earth. Outside the tropics, autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March ( Southe ...
to fellow Muslims. In addition to several visits between the gift-carrying ambassadors of the two sultanates, Inal sent his personal congratulations to
Mehmet II Mehmed II ( ota, محمد ثانى, translit=Meḥmed-i s̱ānī; tr, II. Mehmed, ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror ( ota, ابو الفتح, Ebū'l-fetḥ, lit=the Father of Conquest, links=no; tr, Fâtih Su ...
in a poem and versified dispatch.Muir, 1896, p
161
/ref> In June 1457 Inal sent an expeditionary force to retake Tarsus and
Adana Adana (; ; ) is a major city in southern Turkey. It is situated on the Seyhan River, inland from the Mediterranean Sea. The administrative seat of Adana Province, Adana province, it has a population of 2.26 million. Adana lies in the heart ...
from the
Karamanids The Karamanids ( tr, Karamanoğulları or ), also known as the Emirate of Karaman and Beylik of Karaman ( tr, Karamanoğulları Beyliği), was one of the Anatolian beyliks, centered in South-Central Anatolia around the present-day Karaman Pro ...
of central
Anatolia Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
.Muir, 1896, p
160
/ref> After the destructive sieges against the Karamanid cities of
Caesarea Caesarea () ( he, קֵיסָרְיָה, ), ''Keysariya'' or ''Qesarya'', often simplified to Keisarya, and Qaysaria, is an affluent town in north-central Israel, which inherits its name and much of its territory from the ancient city of Caesare ...
and
Konya Konya () is a major city in central Turkey, on the southwestern edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau, and is the capital of Konya Province. During antiquity and into Seljuk times it was known as Iconium (), although the Seljuks also called it D ...
, the Karamanids surrendered and dispatched an ambassador to Cairo sign a peace treaty with the sultan in April 1458. Friendly ties between Egypt and the various states of
Asia Minor Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
and the border areas of
Armenia Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...
. Also in 1458, Inal received James II in the royal palace of Cairo. James was the illegitimate son of King
John II John II may refer to: People * John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (1455–1499) * John II Casimir Vasa of Poland (1609–1672) * John II Comyn, Lord of Badenoch (died 1302) * John II Doukas of Thessaly (1303–1318) * John II Komnenos (1087–1 ...
and following the latter's death, attempted to wrest his father's throne from his half-sister
Charlotte Charlotte ( ) is the List of municipalities in North Carolina, most populous city in the U.S. state of North Carolina. Located in the Piedmont (United States), Piedmont region, it is the county seat of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, Meckl ...
. Inal decorated him with a "robe of honor" and promised to install him as King of Cyprus. However, after Queen Charlotte offered a larger annual tribute to Cairo, Inal relented and issued a
firman A firman ( fa, , translit=farmân; ), at the constitutional level, was a royal mandate or decree issued by a sovereign in an Islamic state. During various periods they were collected and applied as traditional bodies of law. The word firman com ...
recognizing the queen's authority over Cyprus. Consequently, the ''mamluk'' guards protested and attacked the Cypriot embassy in Cairo in protest against Inal's decree. As slave-soldiers they found sympathy with James' cause, not considering him an "illegitimate" heir to his father's throne. As the uprising grew, Inal bowed to ''mamluk'' pressure and ordered the preparation of a large naval fleet to place James as King of Cyprus.Muir, 1896, pp
159
160.
The naval fleet, which carried 650 ''mamluks'' from the Royal Guard, was launched on 5 August 1460. The campaign failed to install James as king after Queen Charlotte received military assistance from
Pope Paul II Pope Paul II ( la, Paulus II; it, Paolo II; 23 February 1417 – 26 July 1471), born Pietro Barbo, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 30 August 1464 to his death in July 1471. When his maternal uncle Eugene IV ...
and the
County of Savoy The County of Savoy (, ) was a State of the Holy Roman Empire which emerged, along with the free communes of Switzerland, from the collapse of the Burgundian Kingdom in the 11th century. It was the cradle of the future Savoyard state. History ...
. Nonetheless, James managed to capture parts of the island kingdom with the ''mamluk'' force.


Public works

Sultan Inal was particularly known to be concerned with urban planning in Cairo. In 1457 Inal commissioned the construction of two '' hamaams'' ("public bathes") and a large ''rab'' ("communal residence") in the Bayn al-Qasrayn District. While these projects were underway, he decided to widen the Qasaba which had served as Cairo's main thoroughfare. In order to recede the road, he ordered the demolition of several older structures that constricted the flow of traffic. Ibn Taghribirdi commended the project, writing that it greatly benefited the general public.Raymond, 2000, p
172
/ref> On a visit to the important
Bulaq Boulaq ( ar, بولاق, Būlāq from "guard, customs post"), is a district of Cairo, in Egypt. It neighbours Downtown Cairo, Azbakeya, and the River Nile. History The westward shift of the Nile, especially between 1050 and 1350, made land ava ...
port along the banks of the
Nile River The Nile, , Bohairic , lg, Kiira , Nobiin: Áman Dawū is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the longest rive ...
on 28 March 1458, Inal was repulsed at the scene of its crowded and dilapidated buildings and structures. The next day he issued a decree banning construction in Bulaq and the adjacent Arwa Island, due to the narrowness of the roads there. While the royal council voiced opposition to Inal's moves, Ibn Taghribirdi, who asserted that it would ease the public's access to the port and that the rights of some individuals should not infringe on the rights of others.


Succession and death

A
plague Plague or The Plague may refer to: Agriculture, fauna, and medicine *Plague (disease), a disease caused by ''Yersinia pestis'' * An epidemic of infectious disease (medical or agricultural) * A pandemic caused by such a disease * A swarm of pes ...
spread to Cairo in 1460, killing thousands of its inhabitants, including roughly 1,400 of the royal ''mamluks''. Inal and his ''ajlab'' council decided to allocate the
fief A fief (; la, feudum) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an Lord, overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a for ...
s of the landowners who perished to themselves. The ''ajlab'' amassed huge quantities of fiefs, and largely held on to them until the rise of Sultan Khuskhadam in mid-1461. Inal was reported to be ill on 3 February 1461. Afterward he summoned Caliph al-Mustanjid and his legal scholars and conveyed to them his will that
Ahmad Ahmad ( ar, أحمد, ʾAḥmad) is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other spellings of the name include Ahmed and Ahmet. Etymology The word derives from the root (ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from the ve ...
, his eldest son and '' emir al-hajj'' ("commander of the
pilgrimage A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
o_Mecca.html"_;"title="Mecca.html"_;"title="o_Mecca">o_Mecca">Mecca.html"_;"title="o_Mecca">o_Mecca),_should_succeed_him._As_a_result._Inal_abdicated_the_sultanate,_and_on_25_February_Ahmad_was_proclaimed_sultan,_receiving_homage_in_the_royal_Hall_of_Audience.Muir,_1896,_pp
161
162.
_On_26_February_Inal_died_at_the_age_of_80_after_a_reign_of_seven_years_and_eleven_months. Ahmad_ruled_for_four_months_before_peacefully_abdicating_on_28_June_as_a_result_of_pressure_from_an_alliance_of_powerful_''mamluk''_factions_opposed_to_his_leadership,_including_the_Zahiris,_Ashrafis,_Nasiris_and_his_own_Mu'ayyadis._They_were_led_by_the_Turkish_people.html" ;"title="Mecca">o_Mecca.html" ;"title="Mecca.html" ;"title="o Mecca">o Mecca">Mecca.html" ;"title="o Mecca">o Mecca), should succeed him. As a result. Inal abdicated the sultanate, and on 25 February Ahmad was proclaimed sultan, receiving homage in the royal Hall of Audience.Muir, 1896, pp
161
162.
On 26 February Inal died at the age of 80 after a reign of seven years and eleven months. Ahmad ruled for four months before peacefully abdicating on 28 June as a result of pressure from an alliance of powerful ''mamluk'' factions opposed to his leadership, including the Zahiris, Ashrafis, Nasiris and his own Mu'ayyadis. They were led by the Turkish people">Turkish Khushkadam who became sultan in Ahmad's stead.Natho, 2010, p
217
/ref>


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * {{Authority control 1381 births 1461 deaths Burji sultans Circassian Mamluks Medieval Palestine History of Safed Royalty from Cairo 15th-century Mamluk sultans