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The ''Satires'' () are a collection of
satirical Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming or ...
poems by the Latin author
Juvenal Decimus Junius Juvenalis (), known in English as Juvenal ( ), was a Roman poet active in the late first and early second century CE. He is the author of the collection of satirical poems known as the '' Satires''. The details of Juvenal's life ...
written between the end of the first and the early second centuries A.D. Juvenal is credited with sixteen known poems divided among five
books A book is a medium for recording information in the form of writing or images, typically composed of many pages (made of papyrus, parchment, vellum, or paper) bound together and protected by a cover. The technical term for this physic ...
; all are in the Roman genre of
satire Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming o ...
, which, at its most basic in the time of the author, comprised a wide-ranging discussion of society and social in
dactylic hexameter Dactylic hexameter (also known as heroic hexameter and the meter of epic) is a form of meter or rhythmic scheme frequently used in Ancient Greek and Latin poetry. The scheme of the hexameter is usually as follows (writing – for a long syllable ...
. The sixth and tenth satires are some of the most renowned works in the collection. The poems are not individually titled, but translators have often added titles for the convenience of readers. *Book I: Satires 1–5 *Book II: Satire 6 *Book III: Satires 7–9 *Book IV: Satires 10–12 *Book V: Satires 13–16 (Satire 16 is incompletely preserved) Roman was a formal literary genre rather than being simply clever, humorous critique in no particular format. Juvenal wrote in this tradition, which originated with
Lucilius The gens Lucilia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. The most famous member of this gens was the poet Gaius Lucilius, who flourished during the latter part of the second century BC.''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vo ...
and included the Sermones of
Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his ' ...
and the Satires of
Persius Aulus Persius Flaccus (; 4 December 3424 November 62 AD) was a Roman poet and satirist of Etruscan origin. In his works, poems and satires, he shows a Stoic wisdom and a strong criticism for what he considered to be the stylistic abuses of hi ...
. In a tone and manner ranging from irony to apparent rage, Juvenal criticizes the actions and beliefs of many of his contemporaries, providing insight more into value systems and questions of morality and less into the realities of Roman life. The author employs outright obscenity less frequently than
Martial Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial ; March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman poet from Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of ''Epigrams'', published in Rome between AD 86 and ...
or
Catullus Gaius Valerius Catullus (; 84 - 54 BCE), often referred to simply as Catullus (, ), was a Latin poet of the late Roman Republic who wrote chiefly in the neoteric style of poetry, focusing on personal life rather than classical heroes. His ...
, but the scenes painted in his text are no less vivid or lurid for that discretion. The author makes constant allusion to history and myth as a source of object lessons or exemplars of particular vices and virtues. Coupled with his dense and elliptical Latin, these tangential references indicate that the intended reader of the ''Satires'' was highly educated. The ''Satires'' are concerned with perceived threats to the social continuity of the Roman citizens: social-climbing foreigners, unfaithfulness, and other more extreme excesses of their own class. The intended audience of the ''Satires'' constituted a subset of the Roman elite, primarily adult males of a more conservative social stance. Scholarly estimates for the dating of the individual books have varied. It is generally accepted that the fifth book must date to a point after 127, because of a reference to the Roman consul Lucius Aemilius Juncus in Satire 15. A recent scholar has argued that the first book should be dated to 100 or 101. Juvenal's works are contemporary with those of Martial,
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. The surviving portions of his two major works—the ...
and
Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61 – c. 113), better known as Pliny the Younger (), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and educate ...
.


Manuscript tradition

The controversies concerning the surviving texts of the Satires have been extensive and heated. Many manuscripts survive, but only P (the Codex Pithoeanus Montepessulanus), a 9th-century manuscript based on an edition prepared in the 4th century by a pupil of
Servius Honoratus Servius was a late fourth-century and early fifth-century grammarian. He earned a contemporary reputation as the most learned man of his generation in Italy; he authored a set of commentaries on the works of Virgil. These works, ''In tria Virg ...
, the grammarian, is reasonably reliable. At the same time as the Servian text was produced, however, other and lesser scholars also created their editions of Juvenal: it is these on which most medieval manuscripts of Juvenal are based. It did not help matters that P disappeared sometime during the Renaissance and was only rediscovered around 1840. It is not, however, uncommon for the generally inferior manuscripts to supply a better reading in cases when P is imperfect. In addition, modern scholarly debate has also raged around the authenticity of the text which has survived, as various editors have argued that considerable portions are not, in fact, authentically Juvenalian and represent interpolations from early editors of the text. Jachmann (1943) argued that up to one-third of what survives is non-authentic: Ulrick Knoche (1950) deleted about hundred lines, Clausen about forty, Courtney (1975) a similar number. Willis (1997) italicizes 297 lines as being potentially suspect. On the other hand, Vahlen, Housman, Duff, Griffith, Ferguson and Green believe the surviving text to be largely authentic: indeed Green regards the main problem as being not interpolations but lacunae.Green, 1998, Introduction: LIX-LXIII In recent times debate has focused on the authenticity of the "O Passage" of Satire VI, 36 lines (34 of which are continuous) discovered by E. O. Winstedt in an 11th-century manuscript in Oxford's
Bodleian Library The Bodleian Library () is the main research library of the University of Oxford, and is one of the oldest libraries in Europe. It derives its name from its founder, Sir Thomas Bodley. With over 13 million printed items, it is the sec ...
. These lines occur in no other manuscript of Juvenal, and when discovered were considerably corrupted. Ever since Housman translated and emended the "O Passage" there has been considerable controversy over whether the fragment is in fact a forgery: the field is currently split between those (Green, Ferguson, Courtney) who believe it is not, and those (Willis, Anderson), who believe it is.


Synopsis of the ''Satires''


Book I


Satire I: It is Hard not to Write Satire

This so-called "Programmatic Satire" lays out for the reader a catalogue of ills and annoyances that prompt the narrator to write satire.Miller, Paul Allen. ''Latin Verse Satire''. 2005, page 232 Some examples cited by Juvenal include
eunuchs A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...
getting married, elite women performing in a beast hunt, and the dregs of society suddenly becoming wealthy by gross acts of sycophancy. To the extent that it is programmatic, this satire concerns the first book rather than the satires of the other four known books. The narrator explicitly marks the writings of
Lucilius The gens Lucilia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. The most famous member of this gens was the poet Gaius Lucilius, who flourished during the latter part of the second century BC.''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vo ...
as the model for his book of poems (lines 19–20), although he claims that to attack the living as his model did incur great risk (lines 165–167). The narrator contends that traditional Roman virtues, such as
fides Fides or FIDES may refer to: *Faith, trust, loyalty, or fidelity, or a religious belief * Fides (cycling team), an Italian professional cycling team in 1961 *Fides (deity), goddess of trust in Roman mythology * Fides (reliability), guide allowing ...
and
virtus ''Virtus'' () was a specific virtue in Ancient Rome. It carries connotations of valor, manliness, excellence, courage, character, and worth, perceived as masculine strengths (from Latin ''vir'', "man"). It was thus a frequently stated virtue o ...
, had disappeared from society, to the extent that "Rome was no longer Roman": *lines 1.1–19 – Since there are so many poets wasting paper and everyone's time anyway – why not write? *lines 1.20–80 – The narrator recites a catalogue of social deviants and criminals that demand Satire be written. *lines 1.81–126 – Since the dawn of history, greed and fiscal corruption have never been worse. *lines 1.127–146 – The narrator contrasts a typical day in the life of poor clients with that of their self-indulgent patron. *lines 1.147–171 – The past cannot be worse than the present – yet one should only satirize the dead if they wish to live in safety.


Satire II: Hypocrites are Intolerable

170 lines. The narrator claims to want to flee civilization (i.e. ''Roma'') to beyond the world's end when confronted by moral hypocrisy. Although the broad theme of this poem is the process of gender inversion, it would be an error to take it as simple invective against pathic men. Juvenal is concerned with gender deviance. *lines 2.1–35 – Pathic men that pretend to be moral exemplars are much worse than those who are open about their proclivities. *lines 2.36–65 – When criticized for her morals, Laronia turns on one of these hypocrites and mocks their open effeminacy. *lines 2.65–81 – Criticism of the effeminate dress of Creticus as he practices law. This moral plague (''contagiō'') spreads like disease passes through an entire herd of livestock or a bunch of grapes. *lines 2.82–116 – Effeminate dress is the gateway to complete gender inversion. *lines 2.117–148 – A noble man, Gracchus, marries another man – but such brides are infertile no matter what drugs they try or how much they are whipped in the
Lupercalia Lupercalia was a pastoral festival of Ancient Rome observed annually on February 15 to purify the city, promoting health and fertility. Lupercalia was also known as ''dies Februatus'', after the purification instruments called ''februa'', the ...
. *lines 2.149–170 – The ghosts of great Romans of the past would feel themselves contaminated when such Romans descend to the underworld.


Satire III: There is no Room in Rome for a Roman

322 lines. In the place where
Numa Pompilius Numa Pompilius (; 753–672 BC; reigned 715–672 BC) was the legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus after a one-year interregnum. He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions ar ...
(the legendary second king of Rome) received a nymph's advice on creating Roman law, the narrator has a final conversation with his Roman friend Umbricius, who is emigrating to Cumae. Umbricius claims that slick and immoral foreigners have shut a real Roman out of all opportunity to prosper. Only the first 20 lines are in the voice of the narrator; the remainder of the poem is cast as the words of Umbricius. In 1738,
Samuel Johnson Samuel Johnson (18 September 1709  – 13 December 1784), often called Dr Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions as a poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. The ''Oxford ...
was inspired by this text to write his '' London: A Poem in Imitation of the Third Satire of Juvenal''. The archetypal question of whether an urban life of hectic ambition is to be preferred to a pastoral fantasy retreat to the country is posed by the narrator: *lines 3.1–20 – The narrator's old friend Umbricius is about to depart Roma for
Cumae Cumae ( grc, Κύμη, (Kumē) or or ; it, Cuma) was the first ancient Greek colony on the mainland of Italy, founded by settlers from Euboea in the 8th century BC and soon becoming one of the strongest colonies. It later became a rich Ro ...
. The narrator says he would himself prefer Prochyta to the
Suburra The Suburra, or ''Subura'' (unknown etymology), was a vast and populous neighborhood of Ancient Rome, located below the ''Murus Terreus'' on the ''Carinae'' and stretching on the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal hills up to the offshoots of th ...
, and he describes the ancient shrine of Egeria being put up for rent to Jews and polluted by marble. *lines 3.21–57 – Umbricius: There is no opportunity in Roma for an honest man. *lines 3.58–125 – Umbricius: The Greeks and their ways are flowing like pollution into ''Roma'', and they are so adept at lying flattery that they are achieving more social advancement than real Romans. *lines 3.126–163 – Umbricius: The dregs of society so long as they are wealthy lord it over real Romans; there is no hope for an honest man in court if he is poor. *lines 3.164–189 – Umbricius: Virtue and lack of pretension is only to be found outside the City; at ''Roma'' everything is expensive, pretentious, and bought on credit. *lines 3.190–231 – Umbricius contrasts the perils and degradation of living in ''Roma'' with the easy and cheap life outside the City. *lines 3.232–267 – Umbricius: The streets of ''Roma'' are annoying and dangerous if you are not rich enough to ride in a
litter Litter consists of waste products that have been discarded incorrectly, without consent, at an unsuitable location. Litter can also be used as a verb; to litter means to drop and leave objects, often man-made, such as aluminum cans, paper cups ...
. *lines 3.268–314 – Umbricius: Travel by night in ''Roma'' is fraught with danger from falling tiles, thugs, and robbers. *lines 3.315–322 – Umbricius takes his leave of the narrator, and promises to visit him in his native
Aquinum Aquino is a town and '' comune'' in the province of Frosinone, in the Lazio region of Italy, northwest of Cassino. The name comes from the Latin Aquinum, probably from ''aqua'', meaning "water" as witnessed by the abundance of water that still ...
.


Satire IV: The Emperor's Fish

154 lines. The narrator makes the emperor
Domitian Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Fl ...
and his court the objects of his ridicule in this mock-epic tale of a fish so prodigious that it was fit for the emperor alone. The council of state is called to deal with the crisis of how to cook it, where the fish can neither be cooked by conventional means due to its size, nor can it be cut into pieces. The main themes of this poem are the corruption and incompetence of sycophantic courtiers and the inability or unwillingness to speak truth to power.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...
's motto, ''vitam impendere vero'' (to pay his life for the truth), is taken from the passage below, a description of the qualifications of an imperial courtier in the reign of Domitian: *lines 4.1–10 – Criticism of the courtier Crispinus. *lines 4.11–33 – Crispinus bought a mullet for six thousand
sesterces The ''sestertius'' (plural ''sestertii''), or sesterce (plural sesterces), was an Ancient Rome, ancient Roman Roman currency, coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small, silver coin issued only on rare occasions. During the Roman Empire it w ...
– more expensive than the fisherman that caught him. *lines 4.34–56 – Mock-epic narrative of the crisis of state caused by a giant turbot begins with the catch. *lines 4.56–72 – The fisherman rushes to get the fish to the emperor. *lines 4.72–93 – Crispinus and other councilors begin to arrive. *lines 4.94–143 – More councilors arrive and one prophesizes that the fish is an omen of a future victory. The question of what to do with it is raised, and
Montanus Montanus was the second century founder of Montanism and a self proclaimed prophet. Montanus emphasized the work of the Holy Spirit, in a manner which set him apart from the Great church. Life Only very little is known about the life of Montanu ...
advises that a vessel be manufactured at once suitable for its size. *lines 4.144–154 – The council break up, and the narrator voices his wish that all the actions of Domitian had been so meaningless.


Satire V: Patronizing Patronage

173 lines. The narrative frame of this poem is a dinner party where many potential dysfunctions in the ideal of the patron-client relationship are put on display. Rather than being a performance of faux-equality, the patron (Virro as in 9.35) emphasizes the superiority of himself and his peers () over his clients () by offering food and drink of unequal quality to each. Juvenal concludes with the observation that the clients who put up with this treatment deserve it. *lines 5.1–11 – Begging is better than being treated disrespectfully at a patron's dinner. *lines 5.12–23 – An invitation to dinner is a social exchange for your services as a client. *lines 5.24–48 – Different wines and goblets for different social ranks. *lines 5.49–106 – Different water is served by different grades of slaves – and different breads served by arrogant slaves. The patron gets a lobster, and you get a crayfish; he gets a Corsican mullet, and you get a sewer-fish. *lines 5.107–113 –
Seneca Seneca may refer to: People and language * Seneca (name), a list of people with either the given name or surname * Seneca people, one of the six Iroquois tribes of North America ** Seneca language, the language of the Seneca people Places Extrat ...
and others were known for their generosity. The elite should dine as equals with their friends – clients. *lines 5.114–124 – The patron gets a goose liver and boar meat, but you get to watch the meat carver perform. *lines 5.125–155 – If you had a fortune the patron would respect you; it is the cash that he really respects. Different mushrooms and apples. *lines 5.156–173 – Clients who will not resist this kind of treatment deserve it and worse.


Book II


Satire VI: The Decay of Feminine Virtue

c. 695 lines. For the discussion and synopsis, see
Satire VI Satire VI is the most famous of the sixteen '' Satires'' by the Roman author Juvenal written in the late 1st or early 2nd century. In English translation, this satire is often titled something in the vein of ''Against Women'' due to the most obvi ...
.


Book III


Satire VII: ''Fortuna'' (or the Emperor) is the Best Patron

243 lines. Juvenal returns to his theme of distorted economic values among the Roman elite – in this instance centered on their unwillingness to provide appropriate support for poets, lawyers, and teachers. It is the capricious whims of fate that determine the variables of a human life. *lines 7.1–21 – The emperor is the only remaining patron of letters. *lines 7.22–35 – Other patrons have learned to offer their admiration only. *lines 7.36–52 – The urge to write is an addictive disease. *lines 7.53–97 – Money and leisure are required to be a really great poet (); hunger and discomfort would have hobbled even
Virgil Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: th ...
. *lines 7.98–105 – Historians () do not have it any better. *lines 7.106–149 – Lawyers () get only as much respect as the quality of their dress can buy. *lines 7.150–177 – No one is willing to pay teachers of rhetoric (''magistri'') appropriately. *lines 7.178–214 – Rich men restrain only their spending on a teacher of rhetoric () for their sons.
Quintilian Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (; 35 – 100 AD) was a Roman educator and rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing. In English translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilia ...
was rich, he was the lucky exception to the rule. *lines 7.215–243 – The qualifications and efforts required of a teacher () are totally out of proportion to their pay.


Satire VIII: True Nobility

275 lines. The narrator takes issue with the idea that pedigree ought to be taken as evidence of a person's worth. *lines 8.1–38 – What is the value of a pedigree, if you are inferior to your ancestors?The word in line 20 is the ultimate source of the English word virtue and is related to the Latin word (elite man). While the English term has primarily a moral connotation, the Latin word encompassed all characteristics appropriate to a – in short, excellence. The narrator's point is that the only thing that makes one rightly (known, famous) is being personally outstanding. *lines 8.39–55 – Many nobles have done nothing to make themselves noble. *lines 8.56–70 – Racehorses are valued for their speed not their ancestors; if they are slow they will end up pulling a cart. *lines 8.71–86 – It is vile to rely on the reputations of others; one should be noble even in the face of danger. *lines 8.87–126 – Govern your province honestly. When everything else is stolen from those you rule, weapons and desperation remain. *lines 8.127–162 – If you live wickedly, your good ancestors are a reproach to you. *lines 8.163–182 – Bad behavior should be ceased in youth. The nobles make excuses for behavior that would not be tolerated in slaves. *lines 8.183–210 – When they bankrupt themselves, the nobles may sink to the level of the stage or the arena. *lines 8.211–230 – The emperor
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
utterly debased himself in these ways. *lines 8.231–275 – Many people without famous ancestors have served Rome with great distinction. Indeed, everyone is descended from peasants or worse if you go back far enough.


Satire IX: Flattering your Patron is Hard Work

150 lines. This satire is in the form of a dialogue between the narrator and Naevolus – a male prostitute, the disgruntled client of a
pathic Homosexuality in ancient Rome often differs markedly from the contemporary West. Latin lacks words that would precisely translate "homosexual" and " heterosexual". The primary dichotomy of ancient Roman sexuality was active/ dominant/masculi ...
patron. *lines 9.1–26 – Narrator: Why do you look so haggard, Naevolus? *lines 9.27–46 – Naevolus: The life of serving the needs of pathic rich men is not paying off. *lines 9.46–47 – Nar: But you used to think you were really sexy to men. *lines 9.48–69 – Nae: Rich pathics are not willing to spend on their sickness, but I have bills to pay. *lines 9.70–90 – Nae: I saved his marriage by doing his job for him with a wife that was about to get a divorce. *lines 9.90–91 – Nar: You are justified in complaining, Naevolus. What did he say? *lines 9.92–101 – Nae: He is looking for another two-legged donkey, but don't repeat any of this, he might try to kill me. *lines 9.102–123 – Nar: Rich men have no secrets. *lines 9.124–129 – Nae: But what should I do now; youth is fleeting. *lines 9.130–134 – Nar: You will never lack a pathic patron, don't worry. *lines 9.134–150 – Nae: But I want so little. Fortuna must have her ears plugged when I pray.


Book IV


Satire X: Wrong Desire is the Source of Suffering

366 lines. The theme of this poem encompasses the myriad objects of prayer unwisely sought from the gods: wealth, power, beauty, children, long life, et cetera. The narrator argues that each of these is a false Good; each desired thing is shown to be not good in itself, but only good so long as other factors do not intervene. This satire is the source of the well-known phrase (a healthy mind in a healthy body), which appears in the passage above. It is also the source of the phrase (bread and circuses) – the only remaining cares of a Roman populace which has given up its birthright of political freedom (10.81). *lines 10.1–27 – Few know what is really Good. Wealth often destroys. *lines 10.28–55 – One can either cry like
Heraclitus Heraclitus of Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἡράκλειτος , "Glory of Hera"; ) was an ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from the city of Ephesus, which was then part of the Persian Empire. Little is known of Heraclitus's life. He wrot ...
or laugh like
Democritus Democritus (; el, Δημόκριτος, ''Dēmókritos'', meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. No ...
at the state of things. But what should men pray for? *lines 10.56–89 – It is all too easy to fall from power – like
Sejanus Lucius Aelius Sejanus (c. 20 BC – 18 October AD 31), commonly known as Sejanus (), was a Roman soldier, friend and confidant of the Roman Emperor Tiberius. Of the Equites class by birth, Sejanus rose to power as prefect of the Praetorian ...
. The mob follows
Fortuna Fortuna ( la, Fortūna, equivalent to the Greek goddess Tyche) is the goddess of fortune and the personification of luck in Roman religion who, largely thanks to the Late Antique author Boethius, remained popular through the Middle Ages until at ...
and cares for nothing but
bread and circuses "Bread and circuses" (or bread and games; from Latin: ''panem et circenses'') is a metonymic phrase referring to superficial appeasement. It is attributed to Juvenal, a Roman poet active in the late first and early second century CE, and is used ...
. *lines 10.90–113 – By seeking ever more honors and power, Sejanus just made his eventual fall that much more terrible. *lines 10.114–132 – Being a great orator like
Demosthenes Demosthenes (; el, Δημοσθένης, translit=Dēmosthénēs; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual pr ...
or
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
may get one killed. *lines 10.133–146 – Lust for military glory has ruined countries, and time will destroy even the graves of famous generals. *lines 10.147–167 – What did
Hannibal Hannibal (; xpu, 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋, ''Ḥannibaʿl''; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Pu ...
ultimately accomplish? He dies of poison in exile. *lines 10.168–187 – The world was not big enough for
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
, but a coffin was.
Xerxes I Xerxes I ( peo, 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 ; grc-gre, Ξέρξης ; – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of D ...
crawled back to
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
after his misadventure in Greece. *lines 10.188–209 – Long life just means ugliness, helplessness, impotence, and the loss of all pleasure. *lines 10.209–239 – Old people are deaf and full of diseases. Dementia is the worst affliction of all. *lines 10.240–272 – Old people just live to see the funerals of their children and loved ones, like Nestor or
Priam In Greek mythology, Priam (; grc-gre, Πρίαμος, ) was the legendary and last king of Troy during the Trojan War. He was the son of Laomedon. His many children included notable characters such as Hector, Paris, and Cassandra. Etymology ...
. *lines 10.273–288 – Many men would have been thought fortunate if they had died before a late disaster overtook them: e.g.
Croesus Croesus ( ; Lydian: ; Phrygian: ; grc, Κροισος, Kroisos; Latin: ; reigned: c. 585 – c. 546 BC) was the king of Lydia, who reigned from 585 BC until his defeat by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 547 or 546 BC. Croesus was r ...
, Marius, and
Pompey Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
. *lines 10.289–309 – Beauty is inimical to a person's virtue. Even if they remain untouched by corruption, it makes them objects of lust for perverts. *lines 10.310–345 – Beautiful men tend to become noted adulterers, risking their lives. Even if they are unwilling like Hippolytus, the wrath of scorned women may destroy them. *lines 10.346–366—Is there nothing to pray for then? Trust the gods to choose what is best; they love humans more than we do ourselves, but if you must pray for something, " is to be prayed that the mind be sound in a sound body..." (the excerpt above).


Satire XI: Dinner and a Moral

208 lines. The main themes of this poem are self-awareness and moderation. The poem explicitly mentions one apothegm (know thyself) from the temple of Apollo at
Delphi Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), in ancient times was a sacred precinct that served as the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient classical world. The orac ...
, while its theme calls to mind another (nothing in excess). The subject, in this instance, is the role of food and the (formal dinner) in Roman society. The narrator contrasts the ruinous spending habits of gourmands with the moderation of a simple meal of home-grown foods in the manner of the mythical ancient Romans. *lines 11.1–55 – People that refuse to limit their gourmet habits, even in the face of having to do so on credit, soon endure poverty and consequently inferior food. The advice of
Apollo Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...
to know oneself should be heeded – not just for ambitions and endeavors, but also for what should be spent on a fish. *lines 11.56–89 – The narrator invites a Persicus to come to his house for dinner to see whether his actions match his rhetoric. The dinner will include only home-grown foods from the narrator's Tiburtine land. Long ago, the noble Curius cooked things for himself that a slave on a chain-gang would reject now. *lines 11.90–119 – The ancient Romans did not care for luxuries and Greek art. A
Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but slightly less than one-thousand ...
made of
terracotta Terracotta, terra cotta, or terra-cotta (; ; ), in its material sense as an earthenware substrate, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic where the fired body is porous. In applied art, craft, construction, and architecture, terra ...
saved the city from the
Gauls The Gauls ( la, Galli; grc, Γαλάται, ''Galátai'') were a group of Celtic peoples of mainland Europe in the Iron Age and the Roman period (roughly 5th century BC to 5th century AD). Their homeland was known as Gaul (''Gallia''). They sp ...
. *lines 11.120–135 – Now rich people get no enjoyment from delicacies unless they eat from tables decorated with ivory. The narrator claims that his food is unharmed, despite owning no ivory. *lines 11.136–161 – The narrator promises no professional meat carver or exotic slave servers, nor are his slave boys destined for emasculation and use as sexual toys. *lines 11.162–182 – In place of a pornographic Spanish dance show, there will be poetry. *lines 11.183–208 – Rather than endure the annoyance of all Roma at the
Circus Maximus The Circus Maximus (Latin for "largest circus"; Italian: ''Circo Massimo'') is an ancient Roman chariot-racing stadium and mass entertainment venue in Rome, Italy. In the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and l ...
during the Megalensian Games, the narrator invites his addressee to shake off his cares and come to a simple dinner.


Satire XII: True Friendship

130 lines. The narrator describes to his addressee Corvinus the sacrificial vows that he has made for the salvation of his friend Catullus from shipwreck. These vows are to the primary Roman gods –
Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but slightly less than one-thousand ...
, Juno, and
Minerva Minerva (; ett, Menrva) is the Roman goddess of wisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. Minerva is not a patron of violence such as Mars, but of strategic war. From the second century BC onward, the R ...
(the
Capitoline Triad The Capitoline Triad was a group of three deities who were worshipped in ancient Roman religion in an elaborate temple on Rome's Capitoline Hill (Latin ''Capitolium''). It comprised Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The triad held a central place in th ...
) – but other shipwrecked sailors are said to make offerings to
Isis Isis (; ''Ēse''; ; Meroitic: ''Wos'' 'a''or ''Wusa''; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤎, romanized: ʾs) was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kin ...
. In the passage quoted above, the narrator asserts that his sacrifices are not to curry favor or gain an inheritance, common reasons for making vows among those who would not hesitate to sacrifice their slaves or even children if it would bring them an inheritance. *lines 12.1–29 – Description of the sacrificial preparations. *lines 12.30–51 – Description of a storm: this friend had been willing to cast overboard items of great value to save his own life – who else would prefer his life to his treasures. *lines 12.52–82 – They had to cut the mast due to the ferocity of the storm, but then the weather calmed and they limped their ship into the port at Ostia. *lines 12.83–92 – The narrator orders that the altar and sacrifice be made ready. He says that he will propitiate his ''
Lares Lares ( , ; archaic , singular ''Lar'') were guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. Their origin is uncertain; they may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, or fruitfulness, or an amalgam of these. Lare ...
'' (family gods) as well. *lines 12.93–130 – Catullus has heirs, so the narrator is acting as a friend not a legacy-hunter (). Legacy hunters would sacrifice one hundred cattle, elephants, slaves, or even their own child if it secured an inheritance for them.


Book V (incomplete)


Satire XIII: Don’t Obsess over Liars and Crooks

249 lines. This poem is a dissuasion from excessive rage and the desire for revenge when one is defrauded. The narrator recommends a philosophical moderation and the perspective that comes from realizing that there are many things worse than financial loss. *lines 13.1–18 – Guilt is its own punishment. One should not overreact to ill-use. *lines 13.19–70 – Philosophy and life-experience offer a defense against
Fortuna Fortuna ( la, Fortūna, equivalent to the Greek goddess Tyche) is the goddess of fortune and the personification of luck in Roman religion who, largely thanks to the Late Antique author Boethius, remained popular through the Middle Ages until at ...
. There are hardly as many good people as the gates of
Egyptian Thebes , image = Decorated pillars of the temple at Karnac, Thebes, Egypt. Co Wellcome V0049316.jpg , alt = , caption = Pillars of the Great Hypostyle Hall, in ''The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia'' , map_type ...
(100) or even as the mouths of the
Nile The Nile, , Bohairic , lg, Kiira , Nobiin: Áman Dawū is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the longest riv ...
(9). The
Golden Age The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology, particularly the '' Works and Days'' of Hesiod, and is part of the description of temporal decline of the state of peoples through five Ages, Gold being the first and the one during which the G ...
was infinitely superior to the present age, an age so corrupt there is not even an appropriate metal to name it. *lines 13.71–85 – Perjurers will swear on the arms of all the gods to deny their debts. *lines 13.86–119 – Some believe that everything is a product of chance, and so do not fear to perjure themselves on the altars of the gods. Others rationalize that the wrath of the gods, though great, is very slow in coming. *lines 13.120–134 – It takes no philosopher to realize that there are many worse wrongs than being defrauded. A financial loss is mourned more than a death, and it is mourned with real tears. *lines 13.135–173 – It is silly to be surprised by the number and magnitude of the crimes put to trial at Rome, as silly as to be surprised by a German having blue eyes. *lines 13.174–209 – Even execution of a criminal would not undo their crime; only the uneducated think that revenge is a Good. That is not what the philosophers Chrysippos,
Thales Thales of Miletus ( ; grc-gre, Θαλῆς; ) was a Greek mathematician, astronomer, statesman, and pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Ionia, Asia Minor. He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regarded ...
, or
Socrates Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no t ...
would say. The narrator makes an extended reference to the story of a corrupt
Spartan Sparta ( Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, ''Spártā''; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, ''Spártē'') was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta refe ...
's consultation of the
Oracle of Apollo Pythia (; grc, Πυθία ) was the name of the high priestess of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. She specifically served as its oracle and was known as the Oracle of Delphi. Her title was also historically glossed in English as the Pythoness ...
at
Delphi Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), in ancient times was a sacred precinct that served as the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient classical world. The orac ...
from
Herodotus Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria (Italy). He is known fo ...
(6.86). The mere intention to do evil is guilt. *lines 13.210–249 – Consciousness of one's guilt is its own punishment, with anxiety and fear of divine retribution. The (nature) of criminals is (stuck) and (unable to be changed), and it rushes back to ways they have admitted are wrong (239–240). Thus, criminals tend to repeat their crimes, and eventually end up facing execution or exile.


Satire XIV: Avarice is not a Family Value

331 lines. The narrator stresses that children most readily learn all forms of vice from their parents. Avarice must actually be taught since it runs counter to nature. This vice is particularly pernicious, since it has the appearance of a virtue and is the source of a myriad of crimes and cruelties. *lines 14.1–37 – The greatest danger to the morals of children comes from the vices of their parents. *lines 14.38–58 – People should restrain themselves from vice for the sake of their children. It is unjust for a father to criticize and punish a son who takes after himself. *lines 14.59–85 – People are more concerned to present a clean atrium to outsiders than to keep their house free of vice for their children. The tastes acquired in childhood persist into adulthood. *lines 14.86–95 – Caetronius squandered much of his wealth by building many fine houses; his son squandered the rest by doing the same. *lines 14.96–106 – People learn to be Jewish from their parents. *lines 14.107–134 – Avarice has the appearance of a virtue, but it leads to cruel deprivation of one's slaves and one's own self. *lines 14.135–188 – It is madness to live like an indigent just to die rich. There is no amount of money or land that will satisfy greed, but ancient Romans veterans of the
Punic wars The Punic Wars were a series of wars between 264 and 146BC fought between Rome and Carthage. Three conflicts between these states took place on both land and sea across the western Mediterranean region and involved a total of forty-three ye ...
or of the war against Pyrrhus were content with only two (acres) of land in return for all their wounds. Impatient greed leads to crime. *lines 14.189–209 – Become a lawyer, join the army, or become a merchant. Profit smells good, wherever it is from. Nobody inquires into where you got it, but you have to have it. *lines 14.210–255 – The greedy son will surpass his father as much as
Achilles In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ) or Achilleus ( grc-gre, Ἀχιλλεύς) was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and the central character of Homer's '' Iliad''. He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Pe ...
did
Peleus In Greek mythology, Peleus (; Ancient Greek: Πηλεύς ''Pēleus'') was a hero, king of Phthia, husband of Thetis and the father of their son Achilles. This myth was already known to the hearers of Homer in the late 8th century BC. Bi ...
. Instilling avarice is the same as teaching a child every form of crime. A son whom you have taught to have no mercy will have no mercy on you either. *lines 14.256–283 – Those who take risks to increase their fortunes are like tightrope walkers. Fleets sail wherever there is hope of profit. *lines 14.284–302 – Avaricious men are willing to risk their lives and fortunes just to have a few more pieces of silver with someone's face and inscription on them. *lines 14.303–316 – The anxiety of protecting wealth and possessions is a misery.
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
realized that the cynic
Diogenes Diogenes ( ; grc, Διογένης, Diogénēs ), also known as Diogenes the Cynic (, ) or Diogenes of Sinope, was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynicism (philosophy). He was born in Sinope, an Ionian colony on the Black Sea ...
was happier than himself while living in his pottery home, since Alexander's anxieties and dangers matched his ambitions, while Diogenes was content with what he had and could easily replace. *lines 14.316–331 – How much is enough then? As much as
Epicurus Epicurus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκουρος ; 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and sage who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy. He was born on the Greek island of Samos to Athenian parents. Influence ...
or
Socrates Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no t ...
was content to possess is best, or – in the Roman manner – a fortune equal to the
equestrian order The ''equites'' (; literally "horse-" or "cavalrymen", though sometimes referred to as "knights" in English) constituted the second of the property-based classes of ancient Rome, ranking below the senatorial class. A member of the equestrian ...
. If twice or three times that does not suffice, then not even the wealth of
Croesus Croesus ( ; Lydian: ; Phrygian: ; grc, Κροισος, Kroisos; Latin: ; reigned: c. 585 – c. 546 BC) was the king of Lydia, who reigned from 585 BC until his defeat by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 547 or 546 BC. Croesus was r ...
or of
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
will suffice.


Satire XV: People without Compassion are Worse than Animals

174 lines. The narrator discusses the centrality of compassion for other people to the preservation of civilization. While severe circumstances have at times called for desperate measures to preserve life, even the most savage tribes have refrained from cannibalism. We were given minds to allow us to live together in mutual assistance and security. Without limits on rage against our enemies, we are worse than animals. *lines 15.1–26 – In Egypt they worship bizarre animal-headed gods, but not the familiar Roman ones. Similarly, they will not eat normal things, but do practice cannibalism. Ulysses must have been thought a liar for his tale of the Laestrygonians or the
Cyclopes In Greek mythology and later Roman mythology, the Cyclopes ( ; el, Κύκλωπες, ''Kýklōpes'', "Circle-eyes" or "Round-eyes"; singular Cyclops ; , ''Kýklōps'') are giant one-eyed creatures. Three groups of Cyclopes can be distinguish ...
. *lines 15.27–32 – Recently in upper Egypt, an entire people was guilty of this crime. *lines 15.33–92 – Two neighboring cities hated each other. One attacked while the other held a feast. Fists gave way to stones and then to arrows; as one side fled, one man slipped and was caught. He was ripped to pieces and eaten raw. *lines 15.93–131 – The
Vascones The Vascones were a pre-Roman tribe who, on the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century, inhabited a territory that spanned between the upper course of the Ebro river and the southern basin of the western Pyrenees, a region that coincides wi ...
, however, were blameless, because they were compelled to cannibalism by the siege of Pompey the Great. Even at the altar of
Artemis In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Artemis (; grc-gre, Ἄρτεμις) is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity. She was heavily identified with ...
in Taurus, humans are only sacrificed, not eaten. *lines 15.131–158 – Compassion is what separates humans from animals. The creator gave humans mind () as well as life (), so that people could live together in a civil society.


Satire XVI: Soldiers are above the Law

60 lines preserved. The primary theme of the preserved lines is the advantages of soldiers over mere citizens. *lines 16.1–6 – The narrator wishes that he could join the legions, since soldiers have many advantages over civilians. *lines 16.7–34 – Soldiers are immune to justice since they have to be tried in the camp among other soldiers, where a plaintiff will get no help prosecuting them, and may get a beating in addition for their trouble. *lines 16.35–50 – Soldiers do not have to wait for legal action like civilians *lines 16.51–60 – Only soldiers have the right to make a will while their father lives – leading to an inversion of power with the soldier son being above his father.


Notes


References

*Anderson, William S.. 1982. Essays on Roman Satire. Princeton: Princeton University Press. *Adams, J. N.. 1982. The Latin Sexual Vocabulary. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. *Braund, Susanna M.. 1988. Beyond Anger: A Study of Juvenal's Third Book of Satires. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. *Braund, Susanna. 1996. Juvenal Satires Book I. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. *Braund, Susanna. 1996. The Roman Satirists and their Masks. London: Bristol Classical Press. *Courtney, E.. 1980. A Commentary of the Satires of Juvenal. London: Athlone Press. *Edwards, Catherine. 1993. The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. *Edwards, Catherine. 1996. Writing Rome: Textual Approached to the City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. *Freudenburg, Kirk. 1993. The Walking Muse: Horace on the Theory of Satire. Princeton: Princeton University Press. *Gleason, Maud. W. 1995. Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome. Princeton: Princeton University Press. *Gowers, Emily. 1993. The Loaded Table: Representations of Food in Roman Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. *Highet, Gilbert. 1961. Juvenal the Satirist. New York: Oxford University Press. *Hutchinson, G. O.. 1993. Latin Literature from Seneca to Juvenal. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Juvenal. 1992. The Satires.
Trans.
Niall Rudd William James Niall Rudd (23 June 1927 – 5 October 2015) was an Irish-born British classical scholar. Life and work Rudd was born in Dublin and studied Classics at Trinity College, Dublin. He then taught Latin at the Universities of Hull and M ...
. Oxford: Oxford University Press. *Juvenal. 1992. Persi et Juvenalis Saturae. ed. W. V. Clausen. London: Oxford University Press. *The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 1996. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. *Richlin, Amy. 1992. The Garden of Priapus. New York: Oxford University Press. *Rudd, Niall. 1982. Themes in Roman Satire. Los Angeles: University of California Press. *Syme, Ronald. 1939. The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. *Uden, James. 2015. The Invisible Satirist: Juvenal and Second-Century Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. *Walters, Jonathan. 1997. Invading the Roman Body: Manliness and Impenetrability in Roman Thought. in J. Hallet and M. Skinner, eds., Roman Sexualities, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Juvenal. 1998. The Sixteen Satires.
Trans. Peter Green. London: Penguin Books.


External links



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The Latin Library The Latin Library is a website that collects public domain Latin texts. It is run by William L. Carey, adjunct professor of Latin and Roman Law at George Mason University. The texts have been drawn from different sources, are not intended for ...

Juvenal's Satires 1, 2, and 3
in Latin and English (translation G. G. Ramsay) at the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook
Juvenal's Satire 3
in Latin and English, at Vroma
Juvenal's Satires 1, 10, and 16
English translation by Lamberto Bozzi (2016-2017)
Juvenal's ''Satires'' in English verse
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''The Satires of Juvenal, Persius, Sulpicia, and Lucilius'' in English prose
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Commentary on the ''Satires''
by Edward Courtney * {{DEFAULTSORT:Satires Of Juvenal Works by Juvenal Satirical poems 2nd-century Latin books