The ''synthesis'' (

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

for something "put together"), probably synonymous with ''cenatoria'', "dinner clothes" (from

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

cena The Directorate General for Civil Aviation (french: Direction générale de l'aviation civile, DGAC) is the French civil aviation authority. Its headquarters are in the 15th arrondissement of Paris, 50 Henry-Farman. It is subordinate to the Mini ...

'', "dinner"), was a garment or outfit worn in

ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 B ...

for dining or special occasions such as the

Saturnalia Saturnalia is an ancient Roman festival and holiday in honour of the god Saturn, held on 17 December of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities through to 23 December. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple ...

. It seems to have been worn by both men and women, and was particularly a fashion of the mid-1st to early 2nd century AD. More is known about the etiquette of wearing the ''synthesis'' than its appearance. It is mentioned mainly by

Martial Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial ; March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman poet from Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of ''Epigrams'', published in Rome between AD 86 and ...

, who also uses the word ''cenatoria''. This attire was characteristically colorful, but lacking further description in ancient literature or a secure identification of the ''synthesis'' in art, scholars have viewed it variously as an ensemble or suit, or a single garment that was a sort of

robe A robe is a loose-fitting outer garment. Unlike garments described as capes or cloaks, robes usually have sleeves. The English word ''robe'' derives from Middle English ''robe'' ("garment"), borrowed from Old French ''robe'' ("booty, spoils" ...

tunic A tunic is a garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the knees. The name derives from the Latin ''tunica'', the basic garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome ...

- mantle combination. The ''synthesis'' was part of the urbanite's wardrobe, and fashionable Romans might own several. The garment might be conspicuously expensive, and Martial mentions one of his friends giving a fine ''synthesis'' to his mistress on the occasion of the

Matronalia In ancient Roman religion, the Matronalia (or Matronales Feriae) was a festival celebrating Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth ("Juno who brings children into the light"), and of motherhood (''mater'' is "mother" in Latin) and women in genera ...

. Residents of the

municipalities A municipality is usually a single administrative division having corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate. The term ''municipality'' may also mean the go ...

would have rare occasion to wear the ''synthesis''. The

toga The toga (, ), a distinctive garment of ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from white wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tra ...

, the Roman male citizen's characteristic garment, was cumbersome and considered inappropriate for reclining at dinner. At the same time, exposing too much flesh at dinner was offensive to Romans; funerary dining scenes in

Roman art The art of Ancient Rome, and the territories of its Republic and later Empire, includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Luxury objects in metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are sometimes considered to be mi ...

showing bare torsos have a symbolic or religious meaning. The ''synthesis'' was a colorful alternative for private leisure, and wearing it in everyday public life was a faux pas. It could be worn during the day in public only during the

, the December

festival A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival c ...

during which

social norms Social norms are shared standards of acceptable behavior by groups. Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society, as well as be codified into rules and laws. Social normative influences or soci ...

were turned topsy-turvy. Martial treats the wearing of the ''synthesis'' as characteristic of the holiday, as was the wearing of the "cap of freedom" ('' pilleus''). It may originally have been women's clothing, adopted by men as part of the holiday's role reversals. The emperor

Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...

was criticized for choosing a loose-belted ''synthesis'' as everyday attire. The priesthood of the

Arval Brothers In ancient Roman religion, the Arval Brethren ( la, Fratres Arvales, "Brothers of the Fields") or Arval Brothers were a body of priests who offered annual sacrifices to the Lares and gods to guarantee good harvests. Inscriptions provide eviden ...

wore a white version of the garment at their ceremonial banquets. The officers of the Arvals (''magister'' and ''

flamen A (plural ''flamens'' or ''flamines'') was a priest of the ancient Roman religion who was assigned to one of eighteen deities with official cults during the Roman Republic. The most important of these were the three (or "major priests"), who ser ...

'') held annual office from one Saturnalia (December 17) to the next.

Robert E.A. Palmer Robert Everett Allen Palmer II (August 15, 1982 – March 11, 2006) was an historian and a leading figure in the study of archaic Rome. At the time of his death was professor emeritus of classical studies at the University of Pennsylvania. Palmer ...

, ''The Archaic Community of the Romans'' (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 112.

References

{{Reflist Roman-era clothing

See also

References