Swahili, also known by its
local name , is the
native language
A first language, native tongue, native language, mother tongue or L1 is the first language or dialect that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. In some countries, the term ''native language'' or ''mother tongu ...
of the
Swahili people
The Swahili people ( sw, WaSwahili) comprise mainly Bantu, Afro-Arab and Comorian ethnic groups inhabiting the Swahili coast, an area encompassing the Zanzibar archipelago and mainland Tanzania's seaboard, littoral Kenya, northern Mozambique, ...
, who are found primarily in
Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
,
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
and
Mozambique
Mozambique (), officially the Republic of Mozambique ( pt, Moçambique or , ; ny, Mozambiki; sw, Msumbiji; ts, Muzambhiki), is a country located in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi ...
(along the
East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa:
Due to the historical ...
n coast and adjacent litoral islands). It is a
Bantu language
The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀) are a large family of languages spoken by the Bantu people of Central, Southern, Eastern africa and Southeast Africa. They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages.
The t ...
, though Swahili has borrowed a number of words from foreign languages, particularly
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
, but also words from
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
,
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
and
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
. Around forty percent of Swahili vocabulary consists of Arabic loanwords,
including the name of the language ( , a plural adjectival form of an Arabic word meaning 'of the coast'). The loanwords date from the era of contact between
Arab slave trade
History of slavery in the Muslim world refers to various periods in which a slave trade has been carried out under the auspices of Arab peoples or Arab countries. Examples include:
* Trans-Saharan slave trade
* Indian Ocean slave trade
* Barbary sl ...
rs and the
Bantu
Bantu may refer to:
*Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages
*Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language
* Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle
*Black Association for National ...
inhabitants of the east coast of Africa, which was also the time period when Swahili emerged as a
lingua franca
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
in the region. The number of Swahili speakers, be they native or second-language speakers, is estimated to be approximately 200 million.
Due to concerted efforts by the government of
Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
, Swahili is one of three official languages (the others being English and French) of the
East African Community
The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organisation composed of seven countries in the Great Lakes region of East Africa: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the United Republic of Tanzania, the Republics of Kenya, Burundi, ...
(EAC) countries, namely
Burundi
Burundi (, ), officially the Republic of Burundi ( rn, Repuburika y’Uburundi ; Swahili language, Swahili: ''Jamuhuri ya Burundi''; French language, French: ''République du Burundi'' ), is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley at the ...
,
Democratic Republic of Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (french: République démocratique du Congo (RDC), colloquially "La RDC" ), informally Congo-Kinshasa, DR Congo, the DRC, the DROC, or the Congo, and formerly and also colloquially Zaire, is a country in ...
,
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
,
Rwanda
Rwanda (; rw, u Rwanda ), officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator ...
,
South Sudan
South Sudan (; din, Paguot Thudän), officially the Republic of South Sudan ( din, Paankɔc Cuëny Thudän), is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the C ...
,
Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
, and
Uganda
}), is a landlocked country in East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
. It is a
lingua franca
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
of other areas in the
African Great Lakes
The African Great Lakes ( sw, Maziwa Makuu; rw, Ibiyaga bigari) are a series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East African Rift. They include Lake Victoria, the second-largest fresh water lake in the ...
region and
East
East or Orient is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth.
Etymology
As in other languages, the word is formed from the fa ...
and
Southern Africa
Southern Africa is the southernmost subregion of the African continent, south of the Congo and Tanzania. The physical location is the large part of Africa to the south of the extensive Congo River basin. Southern Africa is home to a number of ...
, including some parts of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (french: République démocratique du Congo (RDC), colloquially "La RDC" ), informally Congo-Kinshasa, DR Congo, the DRC, the DROC, or the Congo, and formerly and also colloquially Zaire, is a country in ...
(DRC),
Malawi
Malawi (; or aláwi Tumbuka: ''Malaŵi''), officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast ...
,
Mozambique
Mozambique (), officially the Republic of Mozambique ( pt, Moçambique or , ; ny, Mozambiki; sw, Msumbiji; ts, Muzambhiki), is a country located in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi ...
, the southern tip of
Somalia
Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
, and
Zambia
Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...
. Swahili is also one of the working
languages of the African Union
The languages of the African Union are languages used by citizens within the member states of the African Union (AU). For languages of the institution, see African Union#Languages, African Union: Languages.
Overview
The African Union has not lega ...
and of the
Southern African Development Community
The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is an inter-governmental organization headquartered in Gaborone, Botswana.
Its goal is to further regional socio-economic cooperation and integration as well as political and security coopera ...
. The
East African Community
The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organisation composed of seven countries in the Great Lakes region of East Africa: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the United Republic of Tanzania, the Republics of Kenya, Burundi, ...
created an institution called the ''East African Kiswahili Commission'' (EACK) which began operations in 2015. The institution currently serves as the leading body for promoting the language in the
East African region, as well as for coordinating its development and usage for regional integration and sustainable development.
[Press Release on EAKC](_blank)
/ref> In recent years South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
, Botswana
Botswana (, ), officially the Republic of Botswana ( tn, Lefatshe la Botswana, label=Setswana, ), is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. Botswana is topographically flat, with approximately 70 percent of its territory being the Kalahar ...
, Namibia
Namibia (, ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa. Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and ea ...
, Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
, and South Sudan
South Sudan (; din, Paguot Thudän), officially the Republic of South Sudan ( din, Paankɔc Cuëny Thudän), is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the C ...
have begun offering Swahili as a subject in schools or have developed plans to do so.
Shikomor (or Comorian), an official language in Comoros
The Comoros,, ' officially the Union of the Comoros,; ar, الاتحاد القمري ' is an independent country made up of three islands in southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. It ...
and also spoken in Mayotte
Mayotte (; french: Mayotte, ; Shimaore: ''Maore'', ; Kibushi: ''Maori'', ), officially the Department of Mayotte (french: Département de Mayotte), is an overseas department and region and single territorial collectivity of France. It is loc ...
(), is closely related to Swahili and is sometimes considered a dialect of Swahili, although other authorities consider it a distinct language. In 2022, based on Swahili's growth as a prominent international language, the United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
declared Swahili Language Day as 7 July to commemorate the date that Julius Nyerere
Julius Kambarage Nyerere (; 13 April 1922 – 14 October 1999) was a Tanzanian anti-colonial activist, politician, and political theorist. He governed Tanganyika as prime minister from 1961 to 1962 and then as president from 1962 to 1964, aft ...
adopted Swahili as a unifying language for African independence struggles.
Classification
Swahili is a Bantu language
The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀) are a large family of languages spoken by the Bantu people of Central, Southern, Eastern africa and Southeast Africa. They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages.
The t ...
of the Sabaki branch. In Guthrie's geographic classification, Swahili is in Bantu zone G, whereas the other Sabaki languages are in zone E70, commonly under the name ''Nyika.'' Historical linguists consider the Arabic influence on Swahili to be significant, since it takes around 40% of its vocabulary directly from Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
, and was initially spread by Arab slave trade
History of slavery in the Muslim world refers to various periods in which a slave trade has been carried out under the auspices of Arab peoples or Arab countries. Examples include:
* Trans-Saharan slave trade
* Indian Ocean slave trade
* Barbary sl ...
rs along East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa:
Due to the historical ...
's coast.
History
![Askari makumbusho matini Kiswahili - Kiarabu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Askari_makumbusho_matini_Kiswahili_-_Kiarabu.png)
Etymology
The origin of the word Swahili is its phonetic equivalent in Arabic:
Origin
The core of the Swahili language originates in Bantu languages
The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀) are a large family of languages spoken by the Bantu people of Central, Southern, Eastern africa and Southeast Africa. They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages.
The t ...
of the coast of East Africa. Much of Swahili's Bantu vocabulary has cognates in the Pokomo, Taita
Taita may refer to:
* Taita people, a Bantu ethnic group in Kenya
* Taita language, a Bantu language
*Taitā, New Zealand, a suburb of Lower Hutt City
* Taita Hills, a mountain range in Kenya
* Taita Cushitic languages, an extinct pair of Afro-Asi ...
, and Mijikenda language
Mijikenda is a Bantu dialect cluster spoken along the coast of East Africa, mostly in Kenya, where there are 1.9 million speakers (2009 census) but also in Tanzania, where there are 100,000 speakers. The name ''Mijikenda'' means "the nine settl ...
s and, to a lesser extent, other East African Bantu languages. While opinions vary on the specifics, it has been historically purported that around 16-20% of the Swahili vocabulary is derived from loan words, the vast majority Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
, but also other contributing languages, including Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
, Hindustani, Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
, and Malay
Malay may refer to:
Languages
* Malay language or Bahasa Melayu, a major Austronesian language spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore
** History of the Malay language, the Malay language from the 4th to the 14th century
** Indonesi ...
.
Omani Arabic
Omani Arabic (also known as Omani Hadari Arabic) is a variety of Arabic spoken in the Al Hajar Mountains of Oman and in a few neighboring coastal regions. It is the easternmost Arabic dialect. It was formerly spoken by colonists in Kenya and Tanz ...
is the source of most Arabic loanwords in Swahili. In the text "Early Swahili History Reconsidered", however, Thomas Spear noted that Swahili retains a large amount of grammar, vocabulary, and sounds inherited from the Sabaki language. In fact, while taking account of daily vocabulary, using lists of one hundred words, 72–91% were inherited from the Sabaki language (which is reported as a parent language) whereas 4–17% were loan words from other African languages. Only 2–8% were from non-African languages, and Arabic loan words constituted a fraction of that. According to other sources, around 40% of the Swahili vocabulary comes from Arabic. What also remained unconsidered was that a good number of the borrowed terms had Bantu equivalents. The preferred use of Arabic loan words is prevalent along the coast, where local people, in a cultural show of proximity to, or descent from Arab culture, would rather use loan words, whereas the people in the interior tend to use the Bantu equivalents. It was originally written in Arabic script
The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and the ...
.
The earliest known documents written in Swahili are letters written in Kilwa
Kilwa Kisiwani (English: ''Kilwa Island'') is an island, national historic site, and hamlet community located in the township of Kilwa Masoko, the district seat of Kilwa District in the Tanzanian region of Lindi Region in southern Tanzania. K ...
, Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
, in 1711 in the Arabic script that were sent to the Portuguese of Mozambique and their local allies. The original letters are preserved in the Historical Archives of Goa, India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
.
Colonial period
Various colonial powers that ruled on the coast of East Africa played a role in the growth and spread of Swahili. With the arrival of the Arabs in East Africa, they used Swahili as a language of trade as well as for teaching Islam to the local Bantu peoples
The Bantu peoples, or Bantu, are an ethnolinguistic grouping of approximately 400 distinct ethnic groups who speak Bantu languages. They are native to 24 countries spread over a vast area from Central Africa to Southeast Africa and into Southern A ...
. This resulted in Swahili first being written in the Arabic alphabet. The later contact with the Portuguese resulted in the increase of vocabulary of the Swahili language. The language was formalised in an institutional level when the Germans took over after the Berlin conference
The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, also known as the Congo Conference (, ) or West Africa Conference (, ), regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence ...
. After seeing there was already a widespread language, the Germans formalised it as the official language to be used in schools. Thus schools in Swahili are called Shule (from German ) in government, trade and the court system. With the Germans controlling the major Swahili-speaking region in East Africa, they changed the alphabet system from Arabic to Latin. After the First World War, Britain took over German East Africa, where they found Swahili rooted in most areas, not just the coastal regions. The British decided to formalise it as the language to be used across the East African region (although in British East Africa
East Africa Protectorate (also known as British East Africa) was an area in the African Great Lakes occupying roughly the same terrain as present-day Kenya from the Indian Ocean inland to the border with Uganda in the west. Controlled by Britai ...
enya and Ugandamost areas used English and various Nilotic and other Bantu languages while Swahili was mostly restricted to the coast). In June 1928, an inter-territorial conference attended by representatives of Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
, Tanganyika
Tanganyika may refer to:
Places
* Tanganyika Territory (1916–1961), a former British territory which preceded the sovereign state
* Tanganyika (1961–1964), a sovereign state, comprising the mainland part of present-day Tanzania
* Tanzania Main ...
, Uganda
}), is a landlocked country in East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
, and Zanzibar
Zanzibar (; ; ) is an insular semi-autonomous province which united with Tanganyika in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. It is an archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of many small islands ...
took place in Mombasa
Mombasa ( ; ) is a coastal city in southeastern Kenya along the Indian Ocean. It was the first capital of the British East Africa, before Nairobi was elevated to capital city status. It now serves as the capital of Mombasa County. The town is ...
. The Zanzibar dialect was chosen as standard Swahili for those areas, and the standard orthography for Swahili was adopted.
Current status
Swahili has become a second language spoken by tens of millions in four African Great Lakes
The African Great Lakes ( sw, Maziwa Makuu; rw, Ibiyaga bigari) are a series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East African Rift. They include Lake Victoria, the second-largest fresh water lake in the ...
countries (Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
, DRC
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (french: République démocratique du Congo (RDC), colloquially "La RDC" ), informally Congo-Kinshasa, DR Congo, the DRC, the DROC, or the Congo, and formerly and also colloquially Zaire, is a country in ...
, Uganda
}), is a landlocked country in East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
, and Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
), where it is an official or national language, while being the first language for many people in Tanzania especially in the coastal regions of Tanga, Pwani, Dar es Salaam, Mtwara and Lindi. In the inner regions of Tanzania, Swahili is spoken with an accent influenced by local languages and dialects, and as a first language for most people born in the cities, whilst being spoken as a second language in rural areas. Swahili and closely related languages are spoken by relatively small numbers of people in Burundi
Burundi (, ), officially the Republic of Burundi ( rn, Repuburika y’Uburundi ; Swahili language, Swahili: ''Jamuhuri ya Burundi''; French language, French: ''République du Burundi'' ), is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley at the ...
, Comoros
The Comoros,, ' officially the Union of the Comoros,; ar, الاتحاد القمري ' is an independent country made up of three islands in southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. It ...
, Malawi
Malawi (; or aláwi Tumbuka: ''Malaŵi''), officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast ...
, Mozambique
Mozambique (), officially the Republic of Mozambique ( pt, Moçambique or , ; ny, Mozambiki; sw, Msumbiji; ts, Muzambhiki), is a country located in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi ...
, Zambia
Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...
and Rwanda
Rwanda (; rw, u Rwanda ), officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator ...
. The language was still understood in the southern ports of the Red Sea
The Red Sea ( ar, البحر الأحمر - بحر القلزم, translit=Modern: al-Baḥr al-ʾAḥmar, Medieval: Baḥr al-Qulzum; or ; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϩⲁϩ ''Phiom Enhah'' or ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϣⲁⲣⲓ ''Phiom ǹšari''; T ...
in the 20th century. Swahili speakers may number 150 to 200 million in total. The East African Community
The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organisation composed of seven countries in the Great Lakes region of East Africa: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the United Republic of Tanzania, the Republics of Kenya, Burundi, ...
created an institution called the East African Kiswahili Commission (EACK) which began operations in 2015. The institution currently serves as the leading body for promoting the language in the East African region, as well as for coordinating its development and usage for regional integration and sustainable development.
Swahili is among the first languages in Africa for which language technology Language technology, often called human language technology (HLT), studies methods of how computer programs or electronic devices can analyze, produce, modify or respond to human texts and speech. Working with language technology often requires broa ...
applications have been developed. Arvi Hurskainen
Arvi Johannes Hurskainen (born January 25, 1941 in Kitee) is a Finnish scholar of language technology and linguistics. Since 1985 he has developed rule-based language technology mainly for Swahili, but also for other languages, including machine ...
is one of the early developers. The applications include a spelling checker In software, a spell checker (or spelling checker or spell check) is a software feature that checks for misspellings in a text. Spell-checking features are often embedded in software or services, such as a word processor, email client, electronic d ...
, part-of-speech tagging
In corpus linguistics, part-of-speech tagging (POS tagging or PoS tagging or POST), also called grammatical tagging is the process of marking up a word in a text (corpus) as corresponding to a particular part of speech, based on both its definitio ...
, a language learning software
Computer-assisted language learning (CALL), British, or Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI)/Computer-Aided Language Instruction (CALI), American, is briefly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997: p. 1) as "the search for and study of applicat ...
, an analysed Swahili text corpus
In linguistics, a corpus (plural ''corpora'') or text corpus is a language resource consisting of a large and structured set of texts (nowadays usually electronically stored and processed). In corpus linguistics, they are used to do statistical a ...
of 25 million words, an electronic dictionary
An electronic dictionary is a dictionary whose data exists in digital form and can be accessed through a number of different media. Electronic dictionaries can be found in several forms, including software installed on tablet or desktop computers ...
, and machine translation
Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the abbreviation MT (not to be confused with computer-aided translation, machine-aided human translation or interactive translation), is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates t ...
between Swahili and English. The development of language technology also strengthens the position of Swahili as a modern medium of communication. Furthermore, Swahili Wikipedia is among the few Wikipedias in African language featuring a fairly good amount of contributors and articles.
Tanzania
The widespread use of Swahili as a national language in Tanzania came after Tanganyika gained independence in 1961 and the government decided that it would be used as a language to unify the new nation. This saw the use of Swahili in all levels of government, trade, art as well as schools in which primary school children are taught in Swahili, before switching to English (medium of instruction) in secondary schools (although Swahili is still taught as an independent subject).
After Tanganyika and Zanzibar unification in 1964, ''Taasisi ya Uchunguzi wa Kiswahili'' (TUKI, Institute of Swahili Research) was created from the Interterritorial Language Committee. In 1970 TUKI was merged with the University of Dar es Salaam
The University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) is a public university in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. It was established in 1961 as an affiliate college of the University of London. The university became an affiliate of the University of East Africa (UEA) in 1 ...
, while ''Baraza la'' ''Kiswahili la Taifa'' (BAKITA) was formed. BAKITA is an organisation dedicated to the development and advocacy of Swahili as a means of national integration in Tanzania. Key activities mandated for the organization include creating a healthy atmosphere for the development of Swahili, encouraging use of the language in government and business functions, coordinating activities of other organizations involved with Swahili, standardizing the language. BAKITA vision are: "1.To efficiently manage and coordinate the development and use of Kiswahili in Tanzania 2.To participate fully and effectively in promoting Swahili in East Africa, Africa and the entire world over". Although other bodies and agencies can propose new vocabularies, BAKITA is the only organisation that can approve its usage in the Swahili language.
Kenya
In Kenya, Kiswahili has been the national language since 1964 and is official since 2010. ''Chama cha Kiswahili cha Taifa'' (CHAKITA) was established in 1998 to research and promote Kiswahili language in Kenya. Kiswahili is a compulsory subject in all Kenyan primary and secondary schools.
Uganda
Uganda adopted Kiswahili as the official language in 2022 and also made it compulsory across primary and secondary schools in the country.
Somalia
The Swahili language is not widespread in Somalia and has no official status nationally or regionally. It is rarely taught in the education system, the main foreign languages are Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
and English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
. Dialect
The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , 'discourse', from , 'through' and , 'I speak') can refer to either of two distinctly different types of Linguistics, linguistic phenomena:
One usage refers to a variety (linguisti ...
s of Swahili are spoken by some ethnic minorities
The term 'minority group' has different usages depending on the context. According to its common usage, a minority group can simply be understood in terms of demographic sizes within a population: i.e. a group in society with the least number o ...
on the Bajuni islands
The Bajuni Islands ( it, Isole Giuba, also known as the Bajun Islands or Baajun Islands) are an archipelago in southern Somalia. They are situated in the Somali sea in the southern coast of Jubaland, from Kismayo to Ras Kiyamboni (not to be confuse ...
in the form of Kibajuni on the southern tip of the country and in the town of Brava
Brava or La Brava may refer to:
Geography
*Brava, Cape Verde, a volcanic island
* Brava, Costa Rica, an island of Costa Rica (Isla Brava)
*Costa Brava, a coastal area Mediterranean of northeast Spain
*Barawa, a town in Somalia commonly known as ' ...
in the form of Chimwiini
Bravanese, also called Chimwiini (ChiMwini, Mwiini, Mwini) or Chimbalazi is a variety of Swahili spoken by the Bravanese people, who are the predominant inhabitants of Barawa, or Brava, in Somalia. Maho (2009) considers it a distinct dialect, an ...
, both contain a significant amount of Somali and Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
loanwords. Standard Swahili is generally only spoken by Somali nationals who have resided in Kenya and subsequently returned to Somalia. Lastly, a closely related language Mushunguli (also known as Zigula, Zigua, or Chizigua) is spoken by some of the Somali Bantu
The Somali Bantus (also known as Gosha, or Jareerweyne locally) are a Bantu origin ethnic minority group in Somalia who primarily reside in the southern part of the country, primarily near the Jubba and Shabelle rivers. The Somali Bantus are ...
ethnic minority mostly living in the Jubba Valley
The Jubba Valley ( so, Dooxada Jubbada) is a valley in East Africa.
It follows the line of the Jubba River north from the Indian Ocean to the Somalia-Ethiopia border. The valley then splits, one branch following the Dawa River west along the Ethio ...
. It is classified as a Northeast Coast Bantu language
The Northeast Coast Bantu languages are the Bantu languages spoken along the coast of Tanzania and Kenya, and including inland Tanzania as far as Dodoma.Derek Nurse & Thomas Spear, 1985, ''The Swahili'' In Guthrie's geographic classification, ...
as Swahili is and has some intelligibility with Swahili.
Religious and political identity
Religion
Swahili played a major role in spreading both Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
and Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
in East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa:
Due to the historical ...
. From their arrival in East Africa, Arabs
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
brought Islam and set up madrasa
Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , pl. , ) is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whether for elementary instruction or higher learning. The word is variously transliterated '' ...
s, where they used Swahili to teach Islam to the natives. As the Arab presence grew, more and more natives were converted to Islam and were taught using the Swahili language.
From the arrival of Europeans
Europeans are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the states of Europe. Groups may be defined by common genetic ancestry, common language, or both. Pan and Pfeil (2004) ...
in East Africa, Christianity was introduced to the region. While the Arabs were mostly based in the coastal areas, European missionaries went further inland spreading Christianity. As the first missionary posts in East Africa were in the coastal areas, missionaries picked up Swahili and used it to spread Christianity since it contained many similarities with other indigenous languages in the region.
Politics
During the struggle for Tanganyika independence, the Tanganyika African National Union
The Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) was the principal political party in the struggle for sovereignty in the East African state of Tanganyika (now Tanzania). The party was formed from the Tanganyika African Association by Julius Nyerere ...
used Swahili as language of mass organisation and political movement. This included publishing pamphlets and radio broadcasts to rally the people to fight for independence. After independence, Swahili was adopted as the national language of the nation. Till this day, Tanzanians carry a sense of pride when it comes to Swahili especially when it is used to unite over 120 tribes across Tanzania. Swahili was used to strengthen solidarity among the people and a sense of togetherness and for that Swahili remains a key identity of the Tanzanian people.
Phonology
Vowels
Standard Swahili has five vowel phoneme
In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language.
For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-west o ...
s: , , , , and . According to Ellen Contini-Morava
Ellen Contini-Morava is an anthropological linguist, interested in the meanings of linguistic forms, discourse analysis, functional linguistics and (noun) classification; in particular, in the relationship between lexicon and grammar. She speciali ...
, vowels are never reduced, regardless of stress
Stress may refer to:
Science and medicine
* Stress (biology), an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition
* Stress (linguistics), relative emphasis or prominence given to a syllable in a word, or to a word in a phrase ...
.[Contini-Morava, Ellen. 1997. Swahili Phonology. In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa 2, 841–860. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.] However, according to Edgar Polomé
Edgar is a commonly used English given name, from an Anglo-Saxon name ''Eadgar'' (composed of '' ead'' "rich, prosperous" and ''gar'' "spear").
Like most Anglo-Saxon names, it fell out of use by the later medieval period; it was, however, rev ...
, these five phonemes can vary in pronunciation. Polomé claims that , , , and are pronounced as such only in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, as well as before a prenasalized consonant, they are pronounced as , , , and . ''E'' is also commonly pronounced as mid-position after ''w''. Polomé claims that is pronounced as such only after ''w'' and is pronounced as in other situations, especially after (''y''). ''A'' can be pronounced as in word-final position. Swahili vowels can be long
Long may refer to:
Measurement
* Long, characteristic of something of great duration
* Long, characteristic of something of great length
* Longitude (abbreviation: long.), a geographic coordinate
* Longa (music), note value in early music mensur ...
; these are written as two vowels (example: , meaning "sheep"). This is due to a historical process in which the L became deleted between the second last and last vowel of a word ( e.g. "sheep" was originally pronounced ''kondolo'', which survives in certain dialects). However, these long vowels are not considered to be phonemic
In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language.
For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-west o ...
. A similar process exists in Zulu.
Consonants
Some dialects of Swahili may also have the aspirated phonemes though they are unmarked in Swahili's orthography. Multiple studies favour classifying prenasalization as consonant clusters, not as separate phonemes. Historically, nasalization has been lost before voiceless consonants, and subsequently the voiced consonants have devoiced, though they are still written ''mb, nd'' etc. The /r/ phoneme is realised as either a short trill or more commonly as a single tap by most speakers. exists in free variation with h, and is only distinguished by some speakers. In some Arabic loans (nouns, verbs, adjectives), emphasis or intensity is expressed by reproducing the original emphatic consonants and the uvular , or lengthening a vowel, where aspiration would be used in inherited Bantu words.
Orthography
Swahili is now written in the Latin alphabet. There are a few digraphs for native sounds, ''ch'', ''sh'', ''ng'' and ''ny''; ''q'' and ''x'' are not used, ''c'' is not used apart from the digraph ''ch'', unassimilated English loans and, occasionally, as a substitute for ''k'' in advertisements. There are also several digraphs for Arabic sounds, which many speakers outside of ethnic Swahili areas have trouble differentiating.
The language used to be written in the Ajami script
Ajami ( ar, عجمي, ) or Ajamiyya ( ar, عجمية, ), which comes from the Arabic root for ''foreign'' or ''stranger'', is an Arabic-derived script used for writing African languages, particularly those of Mandé, Hausa and Swahili, although ...
, which is an Arabic script. Unlike other adaptations of the Arabic script for other languages, relatively little accommodation was made for Swahili. There were also differences in orthographic conventions between cities and authors and over the centuries, some quite precise but others different enough to cause difficulties with intelligibility.
and , and and were often conflated, but in some spellings, was distinguished from by rotating the '' kasra'' 90° and was distinguished from by writing the ''damma
The Arabic script has numerous diacritics, which include: consonant pointing known as (), and supplementary diacritics known as (). The latter include the vowel marks termed (; singular: , ').
The Arabic script is a modified abjad, where sh ...
'' backwards.
Several Swahili consonants do not have equivalents in Arabic, and for them, often no special letters were created unlike other languages. Instead, the closest Arabic sound is substituted. Not only did that mean that one letter often stands for more than one sound, but also writers made different choices of which consonant to substitute. Below are some of the equivalents between Arabic Swahili and Roman Swahili:
That was the general situation, but conventions from Urdu were adopted by some authors so as to distinguish aspiration and from : 'gazelle', 'roof'. Although it is not found in Standard Swahili today, there is a distinction between dental and alveolar consonant
Alveolar (; UK also ) consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets) of the upper teeth. Alveolar consonants may be articulated with ...
s in some dialects, which is reflected in some orthographies, for example in ' 'to meet' vs. ' 'to be satisfied'. A ''k'' with the dots of ''y'', , was used for ''ch'' in some conventions; ''ky'' being historically and even contemporaneously a more accurate transcription than Roman ''ch''. In Mombasa, it was common to use the Arabic emphatics for Cw, for example in ' (standard ') 'we' and ' (standard ') 'head'.
Particles such as ' are joined to the following noun, and possessives such as ' and ' are joined to the preceding noun, but verbs are written as two words, with the subject and tense–aspect–mood
Tense–aspect–mood (commonly abbreviated ) or tense–modality–aspect (abbreviated as ) is a group of grammatical categories that are important to understanding spoken or written content, and which are marked in different ways by different la ...
morphemes separated from the object and root, as in ' "he who told me".
Grammar
Noun classes
Swahili nouns are separable into classes, which are roughly analogous to gender
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures u ...
s in other languages. In Swahili, prefix
A prefix is an affix which is placed before the Word stem, stem of a word. Adding it to the beginning of one word changes it into another word. For example, when the prefix ''un-'' is added to the word ''happy'', it creates the word ''unhappy'' ...
es mark groups of similar objects: marks single human beings ( 'child'), marks multiple humans ( 'children'), marks abstract nouns ( 'childhood'), and so on. And just as adjectives and pronouns must agree with the gender of nouns in some languages with grammatical gender, so in Swahili adjectives, pronouns and even verbs must agree with nouns. This is a characteristic feature of all the Bantu languages
The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀) are a large family of languages spoken by the Bantu people of Central, Southern, Eastern africa and Southeast Africa. They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages.
The t ...
.
Semantic motivation
The ''ki-/vi-'' class historically consisted of two separate genders, artefacts (Bantu class 7/8, utensils and hand tools mostly) and diminutives (Bantu class 12/13), which were conflated at a stage ancestral to Swahili. Examples of the former are ''kisu'' "knife", ''kiti'' "chair" (from ''mti'' "tree, wood"), ''chombo'' "vessel" (a contraction of ''ki-ombo''). Examples of the latter are ''kitoto'' "infant", from ''mtoto'' "child"; ''kitawi'' "frond", from ''tawi'' "branch"; and ''chumba'' (''ki-umba'') "room", from ''nyumba'' "house". It is the diminutive sense that has been furthest extended. An extension common to diminutives in many languages is ''approximation'' and ''resemblance'' (having a 'little bit' of some characteristic, like ''-y'' or ''-ish'' in English). For example, there is ''kijani'' "green", from ''jani'' "leaf" (compare English 'leafy'), ''kichaka'' "bush" from ''chaka'' "clump", and ''kivuli'' "shadow" from ''uvuli'' "shade". A 'little bit' of a verb would be an instance of an action, and such ''instantiations'' (usually not very active ones) are found: ''kifo'' "death", from the verb ''-fa'' "to die"; ''kiota'' "nest" from ''-ota'' "to brood"; ''chakula'' "food" from ''kula'' "to eat"; ''kivuko'' "a ford, a pass" from ''-vuka'' "to cross"; and ''kilimia'' "the Pleiades
The Pleiades (), also known as The Seven Sisters, Messier 45 and other names by different cultures, is an asterism and an open star cluster containing middle-aged, hot B-type stars in the north-west of the constellation Taurus. At a distance of ...
", from ''-limia'' "to farm with", from its role in guiding planting. A resemblance, or being a bit like something, implies marginal status in a category, so things that are marginal examples of their class may take the ''ki-/vi-'' prefixes. One example is ''chura'' (''ki-ura'') "frog", which is only half terrestrial and therefore is marginal as an animal. This extension may account for disabilities as well: ''kilema'' "a cripple", ''kipofu'' "a blind person", ''kiziwi'' "a deaf person". Finally, diminutives often denote contempt, and contempt is sometimes expressed against things that are dangerous. This might be the historical explanation for ''kifaru'' "rhinoceros
A rhinoceros (; ; ), commonly abbreviated to rhino, is a member of any of the five extant species (or numerous extinct species) of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae. (It can also refer to a member of any of the extinct species o ...
", ''kingugwa'' "spotted hyena
The spotted hyena (''Crocuta crocuta''), also known as the laughing hyena, is a hyena species, currently classed as the sole extant member of the genus ''Crocuta'', native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is listed as being of least concern by the IUC ...
", and ''kiboko'' "hippopotamus
The hippopotamus ( ; : hippopotamuses or hippopotami; ''Hippopotamus amphibius''), also called the hippo, common hippopotamus, or river hippopotamus, is a large semiaquatic mammal native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of only two extan ...
" (perhaps originally meaning "stubby legs").
Another class with broad semantic extension is the ''m-/mi-'' class (Bantu classes 3/4). This is often called the 'tree' class, because ''mti, miti'' "tree(s)" is the prototypical example. However, it seems to cover vital entities neither human nor typical animals: trees and other plants, such as ''mwitu'' 'forest' and ''mtama'' 'millet' (and from there, things made from plants, like ''mkeka'' 'mat'); supernatural and natural forces, such as ''mwezi'' 'moon', ''mlima'' 'mountain', ''mto'' 'river'; active things, such as ''moto'' 'fire', including active body parts (''moyo'' 'heart', ''mkono'' 'hand, arm'); and human groups, which are vital but not themselves human, such as ''mji'' 'village', and, by analogy, ''mzinga'' 'beehive/cannon'. From the central idea of ''tree'', which is thin, tall, and spreading, comes an extension to other long or extended things or parts of things, such as ''mwavuli'' 'umbrella', ''moshi'' 'smoke', ''msumari'' 'nail'; and from activity there even come active instantiations of verbs, such as ''mfuo'' "metal forging", from ''-fua'' "to forge", or ''mlio'' "a sound", from ''-lia'' "to make a sound". Words may be connected to their class by more than one metaphor. For example, ''mkono'' is an active body part, and ''mto'' is an active natural force, but they are also both long and thin. Things with a trajectory, such as ''mpaka'' 'border' and ''mwendo'' 'journey', are classified with long thin things, as in many other languages with noun classes. This may be further extended to anything dealing with time, such as ''mwaka'' 'year' and perhaps ''mshahara'' 'wages'. Animals exceptional in some way and so not easily fitting in the other classes may be placed in this class.
The other classes have foundations that may at first seem similarly counterintuitive. In short,
*Classes 1–2 include most words for people: kin terms, professions, ethnicities, etc., including translations of most English words ending in ''-er.'' They include a couple of generic words for animals: ''mnyama'' 'beast', ''mdudu'' 'bug'.
*Classes 5–6 have a broad semantic range of groups, expanses, and augmentatives. Although interrelated, it is easier to illustrate if broken down:
**Augmentatives, such as ''joka'' 'serpent' from ''nyoka'' 'snake', lead to titles and other terms of respect (the opposite of diminutives, which lead to terms of contempt): ''Bwana'' 'Sir', ''shangazi'' 'aunt', ''fundi'' 'craftsman', ''kadhi'' 'judge'
**Expanses: ''ziwa'' 'lake', ''bonde'' 'valley', ''taifa'' 'country', ''anga'' 'sky'
***from this, mass nouns: ''maji'' 'water', ''vumbi'' 'dust' (and other liquids and fine particulates that may cover broad expanses), ''kaa'' 'charcoal', ''mali'' 'wealth', ''maridhawa'' 'abundance'
**Collectives: ''kundi'' 'group', ''kabila'' 'language/ethnic group', ''jeshi'' 'army', ''daraja'' ' stairs', ''manyoya'' 'fur, feathers', ''mapesa'' 'small change', ''manyasi'' 'weeds', ''jongoo'' 'millipede' (large set of legs), ''marimba'' 'xylophone' (large set of keys)
***from this, individual things found in groups: ''jiwe'' 'stone', ''tawi'' 'branch', ''ua'' 'flower', ''tunda'' 'fruit' (also the names of most fruits), ''yai'' 'egg', ''mapacha'' 'twins', ''jino'' 'tooth', ''tumbo'' 'stomach' (cf. English "guts"), and paired body parts such as ''jicho'' 'eye', ''bawa'' 'wing', etc.
***also collective or dialogic actions, which occur among groups of people: ''neno'' 'a word', from ''kunena'' 'to speak' (and by extension, mental verbal processes: ''wazo'' 'thought', ''maana'' 'meaning'); ''pigo'' 'a stroke, blow', from ''kupiga'' 'to hit'; ''gomvi'' 'a quarrel', ''shauri'' 'advice, plan', ''kosa'' 'mistake', ''jambo'' 'affair', ''penzi'' 'love', ''jibu'' 'answer', ''agano'' 'promise', ''malipo'' 'payment'
***From pairing, reproduction is suggested as another extension (fruit, egg, testicle, flower, twins, etc.), but these generally duplicate one or more of the subcategories above
*Classes 9–10 are used for most typical animals: ''ndege'' 'bird', ''samaki'' 'fish', and the specific names of typical beasts, birds, and bugs. However, this is the 'other' class, for words not fitting well elsewhere, and about half of the class 9–10 nouns are foreign loanwords. Loans may be classified as 9–10 because they lack the prefixes inherent in other classes, and most native class 9–10 nouns have no prefix. Thus they do not form a coherent semantic class, though there are still semantic extensions from individual words.
*Class 11 (which takes class 10 for the plural) are mostly nouns with an "extended outline shape", in either one dimension or two:
**mass nouns that are generally localized rather than covering vast expanses: ''uji'' 'porridge', ''wali'' 'cooked rice'
**broad: ''ukuta'' 'wall', ''ukucha'' 'fingernail', ''upande'' 'side' (≈ ''ubavu'' 'rib'), ''wavu'' 'net', ''wayo'' 'sole, footprint', ''ua'' 'fence, yard', ''uteo'' 'winnowing basket'
**long: ''utambi'' 'wick', ''utepe'' 'stripe', ''uta'' 'bow', ''ubavu'' 'rib', ''ufa'' 'crack', ''unywele'' 'a hair'
***from 'a hair', singulative
In linguistics, singulative number and collective number (abbreviated and ) are terms used when the grammatical number for multiple items is the unmarked form of a noun, and the noun is specially marked to indicate a single item.
This is the ...
s of nouns, which are often class 6 ('collectives') in the plural: ''unyoya'' 'a feather', ''uvumbi'' 'a mote of dust', ''ushanga'' 'a bead'.
*Class 14 are abstractions, such as ''utoto'' 'childhood' (from ''mtoto'' 'a child') and have no plural. They have the same prefixes and concord as class 11, except optionally for adjectival concord.
*Class 15 are verbal infinitives.
*Classes 16–18 are locatives. The Bantu nouns of these classes have been lost; the only permanent member is the Arabic loan ''mahali'' 'place(s)', but in Mombasa Swahili, the old prefixes survive: ''pahali'' 'place', ''mwahali'' 'places'. However, any noun with the locative suffix ''-ni'' takes class 16–18 agreement. The distinction between them is that class 16 agreement is used if the location is intended to be definite ("at"), class 17 if indefinite ("around") or involves motion ("to, toward"), and class 18 if it involves containment ("within"): ''mahali pazuri'' 'a good spot', ''mahali kuzuri'' 'a nice area', ''mahali muzuri'' (it's nice in there).
Borrowing
Borrowings may or may not be given a prefix corresponding to the semantic class they fall in. For example, Arabic ''dūd'' ("bug, insect") was borrowed as ''mdudu'', plural ''wadudu'', with the class 1/2 prefixes ''m-'' and ''wa-'', but Arabic ''fulūs'' ("fish scales", plural of ''fals'') and English ''sloth'' were borrowed as simply ''fulusi'' ("mahi-mahi
The mahi-mahi () or common dolphinfish (''Coryphaena hippurus'') is a surface-dwelling ray-finned fish found in off-shore temperate, tropical, and subtropical waters worldwide. Also widely called dorado (not to be confused with ''Salminus brasil ...
" fish) and ''slothi'' ("sloth
Sloths are a group of Neotropical xenarthran mammals constituting the suborder Folivora, including the extant arboreal tree sloths and extinct terrestrial ground sloths. Noted for their slowness of movement, tree sloths spend most of their li ...
"), with no prefix associated with animals (whether those of class 9/10 or 1/2).
In the process of naturalization of borrowings within Swahili, loanwords are often reinterpreted, or reanalysed,[See pp. 11 and 52 in ]Ghil'ad Zuckermann
Ghil'ad Zuckermann ( he, גלעד צוקרמן, ; ) is an Israeli-born language revivalist and linguist who works in contact linguistics, lexicology and the study of language, culture and identity. Zuckermann is Professor of Linguistics and Ch ...
(2003), ''Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew
''Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew'' is a scholarly book written in the English language by linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, published in 2003 by Palgrave Macmillan. The book proposes a socio-philological framework for the an ...
''
Palgrave Macmillan
/ . as if they already contain a Swahili class prefix. In such cases the interpreted prefix is changed with the usual rules. Consider the following loanwords from Arabic:
#The Swahili word for "book", ''kitabu'', is borrowed from Arabic ''kitāb(un)'' "book" (plural ''kutub''; from the Arabic root ''k.t.b.'' "write"). However, the Swahili plural form of this word ("books") is ''vitabu'', following Bantu grammar in which the ''ki-'' of ''kitabu'' is reanalysed (reinterpreted) as a nominal class prefix whose plural is ''vi-'' (class 7/8).[
#Arabic ''muʿallim(un)'' ("teacher", plural ''muʿallimīna'') was interpreted as having the mw- prefix of class 1, and so became ''mwalimu'', plural ''walimu''.
#Arabic ''madrasa'' school, even though it is singular in Arabic (with plural ''madāris''), was reinterpreted as a class 6 plural ''madarasa'', receiving the singular form ''darasa''.
Similarly, English ''wire'' and Arabic ''waqt'' ("time") were interpreted as having the class 11 prevocalic prefix ''w-'', and became ''waya'' and ''wakati'' with plural ''nyaya'' and ''nyakati'' respectively.
]
Agreement
Swahili phrases agree with nouns in a system of concord
Concord may refer to:
Meaning "agreement"
* Pact or treaty, frequently between nations (indicating a condition of harmony)
* Harmony, in music
* Agreement (linguistics), a change in the form of a word depending on grammatical features of other ...
but, if the noun refers to a human, they accord with noun classes 1–2 regardless of their noun class. Verbs agree with the noun class of their subjects and objects; adjectives, prepositions and demonstratives agree with the noun class of their nouns. In Standard Swahili ''(Kiswahili sanifu)'', based on the dialect spoken in Zanzibar, the system is rather complex; however, it is drastically simplified in many local variants where Swahili is not a native language, such as in Nairobi. In non-native Swahili, concord reflects only animacy: human subjects and objects trigger ''a-, wa-'' and ''m-, wa-'' in verbal concord, while non-human subjects and objects of whatever class trigger ''i-, zi-''. Infinitives vary between standard ''ku-'' and reduced ''i-.'' ("Of" is animate ''wa'' and inanimate ''ya, za.'')
In Standard Swahili, human subjects and objects of whatever class trigger animacy concord in ''a-, wa-'' and ''m-, wa-,'' and non-human subjects and objects trigger a variety of gender-concord prefixes.
Dialects and closely related languages
This list is based on ''Swahili and Sabaki: a linguistic history''.
Dialects
Modern standard Swahili is based on ''Kiunguja,'' the dialect spoken in Zanzibar City
Zanzibar City or Mjini District, often simply referred to as Zanzibar (''Wilaya ya Zanzibar Mjini'' or ''Jiji la Zanzibar'' in Swahili language, Swahili) is one of two administrative districts of Mjini Magharibi Region in Tanzania. The district co ...
, but there are numerous dialects of Swahili, some of which are mutually unintelligible, such as the following:
Old dialects
Maho (2009) considers these to be distinct languages:
*''Kimwani
The Mwani language, also known by its native name Kimwani, ( ) is a Bantu language spoken on the coast of the Cabo Delgado Province of Mozambique, including the Quirimbas Islands. Although it shares high lexical similarity (60%) with Swahili, it ...
'' is spoken in the Kerimba Islands and northern coastal Mozambique.
*''Chimwiini
Bravanese, also called Chimwiini (ChiMwini, Mwiini, Mwini) or Chimbalazi is a variety of Swahili spoken by the Bravanese people, who are the predominant inhabitants of Barawa, or Brava, in Somalia. Maho (2009) considers it a distinct dialect, an ...
'' is spoken by the ethnic minorities in and around the town of Barawa
Barawa ( so, Baraawe, Maay Maay, Maay: ''Barawy'', ar, ﺑﺮﺍﻭة ''Barāwa''), also known as Barawe and Brava, is the capital city, capital of the South West State of Somalia, South West State of Somalia.Pelizzari, Elisa. "Guerre civile et ...
on the southern coast of Somalia.
*'' Kibajuni'' is spoken by the Bajuni minority ethnic group on the coast and islands on both sides of the Somali–Kenyan border and in the Bajuni Islands
The Bajuni Islands ( it, Isole Giuba, also known as the Bajun Islands or Baajun Islands) are an archipelago in southern Somalia. They are situated in the Somali sea in the southern coast of Jubaland, from Kismayo to Ras Kiyamboni (not to be confuse ...
(the northern part of the Lamu archipelago) and is also called ''Kitikuu'' and ''Kigunya''.
*Socotra Swahili
Socotra Swahili is an extinct variety of Swahili spoken on Socotra Island
Socotra or Soqotra (; ar, سُقُطْرَىٰ ; so, Suqadara) is an island of the Republic of Yemen in the Indian Ocean, under the ''de facto'' control of the UAE ...
(extinct)
*Sidi
''Sidi'' or ''Sayidi'', also Sayyidi and Sayeedi, ( ar, سيدي, Sayyīdī, Sīdī (dialectal) "milord") is an Arabic masculine title of respect. ''Sidi'' is used often to mean "saint" or "my master" in Maghrebi Arabic and Egyptian Arabic. Wi ...
, in Gujarat (extinct)
The rest of the dialects are divided by him into two groups:
*Mombasa–Lamu Swahili
**Lamu
The dialects of the Lamu group (especially Kiamu, Kipate, Kingozi) are the linguistic base of the oldest (c.1600 CE) Swahili manuscripts and poems that reached us. They are sometimes described as "literary" dialects but they were also used for everyday life and are still spoken today except Kingozi.
***''Kiamu'' is spoken in and around the island of Lamu
Lamu or Lamu Town is a small town on Lamu Island, which in turn is a part of the Lamu Archipelago in Kenya. Situated by road northeast of Mombasa that ends at Mokowe Jetty, from where the sea channel has to be crossed to reach Lamu Island. ...
(Amu) and have an important corpus of classical poems of the 18st and 19st centuries written in Arabic script (Kiajemi).
***''Kipate'' is a local dialect of Pate Island
Pate (Paté) Island () is located in the Indian Ocean close to the northern coast of Kenya, to which it belongs. It is the largest island in the Lamu Archipelago, which lie between the towns of Lamu and Kiunga in the former Coast Province. T ...
, considered to be closest to the original dialect of Kingozi. It has also an important classical corpus of poems from the 18st and 19st centuries.
***''Kingozi'' is an extinct dialect spoken on the Indian Ocean coast between Lamu and Somalia and is sometimes still used in poetry. It is often considered the source of Swahili. Academic theories about Kingozi as an old literary dialect are conflicting. It's sometimes linked to the epics of Liongo. For Sacleux, it's and old and "an exclusively literary, arcane dialect". It varies depending of the authors whose will to return to a pure form of the old language make them use Kigunya mainly (Kipate is a subdialect of Kigunya) and secondarily Kiamu and Kimvita. Knappert, on the contrary, states the existence of a literary koine
Koine Greek (; Koine el, ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος, hē koinè diálektos, the common dialect; ), also known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek or New Testament Greek, was the common supra-reg ...
in the XVIIIst century based on the Kingozi as a prestigious and widespread dialect. The 2009 New Updated Guthrie List, a referential classification of the Bantu languages, considers kiOzi as a dialect in itself. It's not the ancestor language of Kiswahili but a member of the Lamu group (code G42a) with Kiamu, Kipate and Kisiu. This brief overview indicates that the state of research is fragmented and uncertain on the history of the kingozi.
**Mombasa
***''Chijomvu'' is a subdialect of the Mombasa area.
***''Kimvita'' is the major dialect of Mombasa (also known as "Mvita", which means "war", in reference to the many wars which were fought over it, the other major dialect alongside Kiunguja. It has an important classical corpus written in Arabic script from the 18st and 19st century.
***''Kingare'' is the subdialect of the Mombasa area.
**''Kimrima'' is spoken around Pangani
Pangani Town is a historic Swahili settlement located on the south eastern shore of Tanga Region, Tanzania. The town lies south of the city of Tanga, at the mouth of the Pangani River. It is the headquarters of the Pangani District. Admini ...
, Vanga
The family Vangidae (from ''vanga'', Malagasy for the hook-billed vanga, ''Vanga curvirostris'') comprises a group of often shrike-like medium-sized birds distributed from Asia to Africa, including the vangas of Madagascar to which the family o ...
, Dar es Salaam
Dar es Salaam (; from ar, دَار السَّلَام, Dâr es-Selâm, lit=Abode of Peace) or commonly known as Dar, is the largest city and financial hub of Tanzania. It is also the capital of Dar es Salaam Region. With a population of over s ...
, Rufiji Rufiji may refer to:
* Rufiji Delta, a region in Tanzania
* Rufiji District, in the Pwani Region of Tanzania
* Rufiji River
The Rufiji River lies entirely within Tanzania. It is also the largest and longest river in the country. The river is fo ...
and Mafia Island
Mafia Island (Kisiwa cha Mafia) is an island and district of Pwani Region, Tanzania. The island is the third largest in Tanzanian ocean territory, but is not administratively included within the semi-autonomous region of Zanzibar, which has been ...
.
**''Kiunguja'' is spoken in Zanzibar City
Zanzibar City or Mjini District, often simply referred to as Zanzibar (''Wilaya ya Zanzibar Mjini'' or ''Jiji la Zanzibar'' in Swahili language, Swahili) is one of two administrative districts of Mjini Magharibi Region in Tanzania. The district co ...
and environs on Unguja (Zanzibar) Island. Kitumbatu (Pemba) dialects occupy the bulk of the island.
**Mambrui, Malindi
**''Chichifundi'', a dialect of the southern Kenya coast.
**Chwaka
**''Kivumba'', a dialect of the southern Kenya coast.
**Nosse Be (Madagascar)
*Pemba Swahili
**''Kipemba'' is a local dialect of the Pemba Island
Pemba Island ( ar, الجزيرة الخضراء ''al-Jazīra al-khadrā'', literally "The Green Island"; sw, Pemba kisiwa) is a Tanzanian island forming part of the Zanzibar Archipelago, lying within the Swahili Coast in the Indian Ocean.
Geog ...
.
**''Kitumbatu'' and ''Kimakunduchi'' are the countryside dialects of the island of Zanzibar. Kimakunduchi is a recent renaming of "Kihadimu"; the old name means "serf" and so is considered pejorative.
**Makunduchi
**Mafia, Mbwera
**Kilwa (extinct)
**''Kimgao'' used to be spoken around Kilwa District
Kilwa District (''Wilaya ya Kilwa'' in Swahili) is one of six administrative districts of Lindi Region in Tanzania. The District covers an area of . The district is comparable in size to the land area of the nation state of East Timor. Kilwa d ...
and to the south.
Maho includes the various Comorian dialects as a third group. Most other authorities consider Comorian to be a Sabaki language, distinct from Swahili.
Other regions
In Somalia
Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
, where the Afroasiatic
The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, Erythraean or Lisramic, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic su ...
Somali language
Somali (Latin script: ; Wadaad writing, Wadaad: ; Osmanya: 𐒖𐒍 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘 ) is an Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language belonging to the Cushitic languages, Cushitic branch. It is spoken as a mother tongue by Somalis in ...
predominates, a variant of Swahili referred to as Chimwiini
Bravanese, also called Chimwiini (ChiMwini, Mwiini, Mwini) or Chimbalazi is a variety of Swahili spoken by the Bravanese people, who are the predominant inhabitants of Barawa, or Brava, in Somalia. Maho (2009) considers it a distinct dialect, an ...
(also known as Chimbalazi) is spoken along the Benadir coast by the Bravanese people
The Bravanese people, also known as the Barawani, are a minority ethnic group inhabiting the city of Barawe of Somalia.
Origins
As their name suggests, the Bravanese hail from ''Brava'' (Barawa), a port town on the southeastern coast of Somalia.
...
. Another Swahili dialect known as Kibajuni also serves as the mother tongue of the Bajuni minority ethnic group, which lives in the tiny Bajuni Islands
The Bajuni Islands ( it, Isole Giuba, also known as the Bajun Islands or Baajun Islands) are an archipelago in southern Somalia. They are situated in the Somali sea in the southern coast of Jubaland, from Kismayo to Ras Kiyamboni (not to be confuse ...
as well as the southern Kismayo
Kismayo ( so, Kismaayo, Maay Maay, Maay: ''Kismanyy'', ar, كيسمايو, ; it, Chisimaio) is a port city in the southern Lower Juba (Jubbada Hoose) province of Somalia. It is the commercial capital of the autonomous Jubaland region.
The cit ...
region.
In Oman
Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of t ...
, there are an estimated 22,000 people who speak Swahili. Most are descendants of those repatriated after the fall of the Sultanate of Zanzibar
The Sultanate of Zanzibar ( sw, Usultani wa Zanzibar, ar, سلطنة زنجبار , translit=Sulṭanat Zanjībār), also known as the Zanzibar Sultanate, was a state controlled by the Sultan of Zanzibar, in place between 1856 and 1964. The Sul ...
.[Beate Ursula Josephi, ''Journalism education in countries with limited media freedom'', Volume 1 of Mass Communication and Journalism, (Peter Lang: 2010), p.96.]
Pidgins and creoles
There are Swahili-based slangs, pidgins and creoles:
*
*
*
*
*
*
Swahili poets
* Shaaban bin Robert
Shaaban bin Robert, also known as Shaaban Robert (1 January 1909 – 20 June 1962), was a Tanzanian poet, author, and essayist who supported the preservation of Tanzanian verse traditions. Robert is celebrated as one of the greatest Tanzanian S ...
(1909-1962), Tanzanian poet, author, and essayist
* Euphrase Kezilahabi
Euphrase Kezilahabi (13 April 1944 – 9 January 2020) was a Tanzanian novelist, poet, and scholar. Born in Ukerewe, Tanganyika (now in Tanzania), he last worked at the University of Botswana, as an associate professor at the Department of Afric ...
(1944-2020), Tanzanian novelist, poet, and scholar
* Mathias E. Mnyampala (1917-1969), Tanzanian writer, lawyer, and poet
* Tumi Molekane
Tumi Molekane (born 16 August 1981) is a Tanzanian-born South African rapper and poet. He was the lead vocalist of Tumi and the Volume, that was officially disbanded in 2012. In 2016 Tumi relaunched himself as Stogie T and released an eponymous ...
(b. 1981), South African rapper and poet
* Fadhy Mtanga
Fadhili Frank Mtanga (born 14 November 1981) popularly known by his pen name Fadhy Mtanga is a Tanzanian
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within ...
(b. 1981), Tanzanian creative writer, photographer, graphic designer
* Christopher Mwashinga
Christopher R. Mwashinga, Jr (born 9 January 1965) is a Tanzanian author and poet from Mbeya, Tanzania who lives in the United States. He has published books of Christian poetry, theology, mission, and religious history. His poetry has been p ...
(b. 1965), Tanzanian author and poet
Swahili sayings
Two sayings with the same meaning of ''Where elephants fight, the grass is trampled'':New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid d ...
26 March 1936
See also
*Mandombe script
Mandombe or Mandombé is a script proposed in 1978 in Mbanza-Ngungu in the Bas-Congo province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by Wabeladio Payi, who related that it was revealed to him in a dream by Simon Kimbangu, the prophet of the K ...
*Swahili literature
Swahili literature is, generally speaking, literature written in the Swahili language, particularly by Swahili people of the East African coast and the neighboring islands. It may also refer to literature written by people who write in the Swahili ...
*UCLA Language Materials Project The UCLA Language Materials Project (LMP) maintained a web resource about teaching materials for some 150 languages that are less commonly taught in the United States. The project, funded by the U.S. Department of Education, was created in 1992. I ...
*Languages of Africa
The languages of Africa are divided into several major language families:
* Niger–Congo or perhaps Atlantic–Congo languages (includes Bantu and non-Bantu, and possibly Mande and others) are spoken in West, Central, Southeast and Southern ...
References
Sources
*Ashton, E. O. 1947. ''Swahili Grammar: Including intonation.'' Essex: Longman House. .
*Irele, Abiola and Biodun Jeyifo. 2010. ''The Oxford encyclopedia of African thought, Volume 1''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
*Blommaert, Jan. 2003
Situating Language Rights: English and Swahili in Tanzania Revisited
(sociolinguistic developments in Tanzanian Swahili) – ''Working Papers in Urban Language & Literacies'', paper 23, Ghent University.
* Brock-Utne, Birgit. 2001. "Education for All – in Whose Language?" ''Oxford Review of Education'', 27(1): 115–134. doi:10.1080/03054980125577. S2CID 144457326.
*Chiraghdin, Shihabuddin and Mathias E. Mnyampala. 1977. ''Historia ya Kiswahili''. Oxford University Press. Eastern Africa.
*Contini-Morava, Ellen. 1994.
Noun Classification in Swahili
'.
*Lambert, H.E. 1956. ''Chi-Chifundi: A Dialect of the Southern Kenya Coast''. (Kampala)
*Lambert, H.E. 1957. ''Ki-Vumba: A Dialect of the Southern Kenya Coast''. (Kampala)
*Lambert, H.E. 1958. ''Chi-Jomvu and ki-Ngare: Subdialects of the Mombasa Area''. (Kampala)
*Marshad, Hassan A. ''Kiswahili au Kiingereza (Nchini Kenya)''. Jomo Kenyatta Foundation. Nairobi 1993. .
*Mugane, John A. 2015. ''The Story of Swahili''. Athenns, OH: Ohio University Press. .
*Nurse, Derek, and Hinnebusch, Thomas J. ''Swahili and Sabaki: a linguistic history''. 1993. Series: University of California Publications in Linguistics, v. 121.
Ogechi, Nathan Oyori: "On language rights in Kenya
(on the legal position of Swahili in Kenya)", in: ''Nordic Journal of African Studies'' 12(3): 277–295 (2003)
*Prins, A.H.J. 1961. "The Swahili-Speaking Peoples of Zanzibar and the East African Coast (Arabs, Shirazi and Swahili)". ''Ethnographic Survey of Africa'', edited by Daryll Forde. London: International African Institute.
*Prins, A.H.J. 1970. ''A Swahili Nautical Dictionary''. Preliminary Studies in Swahili Lexicon – 1. Dar es Salaam.
*Sakai, Yuko. 2020. ''Swahili Syntax Tree Diagram: Based on Universal Sentence Structure''. Createspace.
*Whiteley, Wilfred. 1969. ''Swahili: the rise of a national language''. London: Methuen. Series: Studies in African History.
External links
UCLA report on Swahili
*John Ogwana (2001
* ttps://swahili-dictionary.com/english-swahili/@list-swahili-english-dictionaries List of Swahili Dictionaries*
*
{{Authority control
Swahili culture
Languages written in Latin script
Northeast Coast Bantu languages
Non-tonal languages in tonal families
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Languages of Kenya
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Languages of Uganda
Languages of Tanzania
Languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Languages of the African diaspora
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