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Swaddling is an age-old practice of wrapping
infants An infant or baby is the very young offspring of human beings. ''Infant'' (from the Latin word ''infans'', meaning 'unable to speak' or 'speechless') is a formal or specialised synonym for the common term ''baby''. The terms may also be used to ...
in blankets or similar cloths so that movement of the
limb Limb may refer to: Science and technology *Limb (anatomy), an appendage of a human or animal *Limb, a large or main branch of a tree *Limb, in astronomy, the curved edge of the apparent disk of a celestial body, e.g. lunar limb *Limb, in botany, ...
s is tightly restricted. Swaddling bands were often used to further restrict the infant. Swaddling fell out of favour in the 17th century. A few authors are said to be of the opinion that swaddling is becoming popular again, although medical and psychological opinion on the effects of swaddling is largely against. Some modern medical studies indicate that swaddling helps babies fall asleep and to remain asleep and helps to keep the baby in a
supine position The supine position ( or ) means lying horizontally with the face and torso facing up, as opposed to the prone position, which is face down. When used in surgical procedures, it grants access to the peritoneal, thoracic and pericardial regions; ...
, which lowers the risk of
sudden infant death syndrome Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the sudden unexplained death of a child of less than one year of age. Diagnosis requires that the death remain unexplained even after a thorough autopsy and detailed death scene investigation. SIDS usuall ...
(SIDS). However, another study indicated that swaddling increased the risk of SIDS. Additionally, emerging evidence is showing that certain swaddling techniques may increase the risk of developmental dysplasia of the hip.


Origin and history

Several authors presume that swaddling was invented in the
paleolithic The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic (), also called the Old Stone Age (from Greek: παλαιός ''palaios'', "old" and λίθος ''lithos'', "stone"), is a period in human prehistory that is distinguished by the original development of stone too ...
period. The earliest depictions of swaddled babies are
votive offerings A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally ...
and
grave goods Grave goods, in archaeology and anthropology, are the items buried along with the body. They are usually personal possessions, supplies to smooth the deceased's journey into the afterlife or offerings to the gods. Grave goods may be classed as a ...
from Crete and Cyprus, 4000 to 4500 years old. Votive statuettes have been found in the
tomb A tomb ( grc-gre, τύμβος ''tumbos'') is a :wikt:repository, repository for the remains of the dead. It is generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes. Placing a corpse into a tomb can be ...
s of Ancient
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
and
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
women who died in childbirth, displaying babies in swaddling clothes. In shrines dedicated to
Amphiaraus In Greek mythology, Amphiaraus or Amphiaraos (; Ancient Greek: Ἀμφιάραος, Ἀμφιάρεως, "very sacred") was the son of Oicles, a seer, and one of the leaders of the Seven against Thebes. Amphiaraus at first refused to go with Adra ...
, models representing babies wrapped in swaddling clothes have been excavated. Apparently, these were frequently given as thank-offerings by anxious mothers when their infants had recovered from sickness. Probably the most famous record of swaddling is found in the
New Testament The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christ ...
concerning the birth of
Jesus Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
in : Swaddling clothes described in the Bible consisted of a cloth tied together by bandage-like strips. After an infant was born, the umbilical cord was cut and tied, and then the baby was washed, rubbed with salt and oil, and wrapped with strips of cloth. These strips kept the newborn child warm, and were thought to ensure that the child's limbs would grow straight. describes Israel as unswaddled, a metaphor for abandonment. During Tudor times, swaddling involved wrapping the new baby in linen bands from head to foot to ensure the baby would grow up without physical deformity. A stay band would be attached to the forehead and the shoulders to secure the head. Babies would be swaddled like this until about 8 or 9 months. The Swiss surgeon Felix Würtz (approx. 1500 to approx. 1598) was the first who criticized aspects of swaddling openly. In the seventeenth century, the scientific opinion towards swaddling began to change. There was an association of neglect with swaddling, especially regarding
wetnurse A wet nurse is a woman who breastfeeds and cares for another's child. Wet nurses are employed if the mother dies, or if she is unable or chooses not to nurse the child herself. Wet-nursed children may be known as "milk-siblings", and in some cu ...
s who would leave babies in their care swaddled for long periods without washing or comforting them. More than a hundred years after Würtz, physicians and philosophers from England began to openly criticize swaddling and finally demanded its complete abolishment. The British philosopher
John Locke John Locke (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "father of liberalism ...
(1632–1704) rejected swaddling in his 1693 publication ''
Some Thoughts Concerning Education ''Some Thoughts Concerning Education'' is a 1693 treatise on the education of gentlemen written by the English philosopher John Locke. For over a century, it was the most important philosophical work on education in England. It was translated ...
'', becoming a lobbyist for not binding babies at all. This thought was very controversial during the time, but slowly gained ground, first in England and later elsewhere in Western Europe. William Cadogan (1711–1797) seems to have been the first physician, who pleaded for the complete abolition of swaddling. In his "Essay upon Nursing" of 1748, he expressed his view of contemporary child care, swaddling, the topic of too much clothing for infants and overfeeding. He wrote: Philosophers and physicians more and more began to reject swaddling in the 18th century.
Jean Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...
wrote in his book '' Emile: Or, On Education'' in 1762: Although this form of swaddling has fallen out of favour in the
Western world The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to the various nations and state (polity), states in the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania.
, many Eastern cultures and
tribal people The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. This definition is contested, in part due to conflic ...
still use it.


Modern swaddling

The swaddling clothes of
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paintings are now replaced with cotton receiving blankets, cotton muslin wraps, or specialised "winged" baby swaddles. Modern swaddling is becoming increasingly popular today as a means of settling and soothing irritable infants and helping babies sleep longer with fewer awakenings. Since the early 1990s, the medical community has recommended placing babies on their back to sleep to reduce the risk of SIDS. As studies proved swaddled babies sleep better in the back sleeping position, swaddling has become increasingly popular and recommended so parents avoid the dangerous stomach sleeping position. Swaddling also prevents newborns waking themselves with their
Moro reflex The Moro reflex is an infantile reflex that develops between 28 and 32 weeks of gestation and disappears at 3–6 months of age. It is a response to a sudden loss of support and involves three distinct components: # spreading out the arms ( abdu ...
. Loose and ineffective swaddling techniques made while using an undersized blanket can generally be kicked off by a wakeful baby. It is important for caregivers to accomplish a secure swaddle to ensure the blanket does not become loose and the baby remains wrapped during the sleep period. The act of swaddling does carry a risk of the baby overheating if the caregiver uses multiple blankets that are too thick or uses thick fluffy fabric that creates excessive thermal insulation. Modern specialized baby swaddles are designed to make it easier to swaddle a baby than with traditional square blanket. They are typically fabric blankets in a triangle, 'T' or 'Y' shape, with 'wings' that fold around the baby's torso or down over the baby's shoulders and around underneath the infant. Some of these products employ Velcro patches or other fasteners. Some parents prefer a specialized device because of the relative ease of use, and many parents prefer a large square receiving blanket or wrap because they can get a tighter and custom fit and the baby will not outgrow the blanket. To avoid hip dysplasia risk, the swaddle should be done in such a way that the baby is able to move his or her legs freely at the hip. This is more easily done with a large blanket that can keep the arms in place while allowing the legs flexibility, all while allowing for proper hip development. By the time the baby is learning to roll over, often around 4–5 months, parents and caregivers should transition the baby from swaddling to a less restrictive covering for sleep. If the baby can roll over, then it is important for the baby to have use of its hands and arms to adjust his or her head position after rolling over. The traditional swaddling uses flat strings for babies to be tied; care is needed not to tie them too hard or blood flow would be restricted.


Regional variations

Swaddling is still practiced worldwide. In some countries, swaddling is the standard treatment of babies. In Turkey, for instance, 93.1% of all babies become swaddled in the traditional way. According to the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF), 39% of all documented contemporary non-industrialized cultures show swaddling practices; further 19% use other methods of movement restriction for infants. Some authors assume that the popularity of swaddling is growing in the U.S., Great Britain and the Netherlands. A British sample showed up 19.4% of the babies are swaddled at night. In Germany, swaddling is not used as routine care measure and experiences relatively little acceptance, as the missing mentioning of this practice in the standard work on regulatory disturbances of Papusek shows.


Medical uses

Swaddling as a medical intervention with a clearly limited indication range is used in the care practices of premature babies or crybabies with brain-organically provable damage. Also swaddling is used for reducing pain in such care actions as collecting blood at the heel. The swaddling of these premature babies (very low birth weight infants) takes place only very loosely. It is meant to hold the weak arms at the body and make certain movements possible. This "swaddling" is something completely different from traditional swaddling in the stretched position.


Psychological and physiological effects

Modern medical studies of swaddling use a form that is considerably shorter and less severe than the historical forms. The classical study by Lipton ''et al.'' of 1965 dealt with a modern swaddling form. The researchers described the two main effects of tightly wrapping babies: they are motorically calm and sleep much. These effects are detected by means of various psycho-physiological parameters, such as heart rate, sleep duration and duration of crying. The research group around the Dutch biologist van Sleuwen in 2007 confirms this picture in their latest meta-analysis of medical studies on swaddling and its effects. However, severe restrictions on the scope of these studies should be kept in mind, because most of the positive effects mentioned by van Sleuwen ''et al.'' are not related to normally developed newborns, but to impaired babies, namely
premature babies Preterm birth, also known as premature birth, is the birth of a baby at fewer than 37 weeks gestational age, as opposed to full-term delivery at approximately 40 weeks. Extreme preterm is less than 28 weeks, very early preterm birth is between 2 ...
and babies with detectable organic brain damage. Swaddling enhances the REM sleep (active sleep) and also the whole sleep duration. The effect of swaddling on the regulatory disturbance excessive crying is not very convincing: By adding the swaddling there is an immediate "calming" effect on children, but after a few days the effect of the introduction of regularity with swaddling is exactly the same as the regularity on its own. In other words: after a few days swaddling is completely unnecessary. It is therefore contraindicated to address the potential risk of swaddling, because the effect is only for a short term available, but after a little while is negligible.


Motor development

Two studies based on
indigenous peoples of the Americas The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the inhabitants of the Americas before the arrival of the European settlers in the 15th century, and the ethnic groups who now identify themselves with those peoples. Many Indigenous peoples of the A ...
did not show a delay in the onset of walking caused by the restraint of the use of the
cradleboard Cradleboards (, se, gietkka, sms, ǩiõtkâm, smn, kietkâm, sje, gietkam) are traditional protective baby-carriers used by many indigenous cultures in North America and throughout northern Scandinavia amongst the Sámi. There are a variety ...
. In other areas of the motor development, clear delays of the development show up even when mild restrictions take place. A Japanese study concluded that the application of the basket cradle (''ejiko'') leads to a delayed onset of walking. An older Austrian study showed that swaddled Albanian babies showed a delayed ability to crawl and reach things with their hands. This shows the need for further substantial scientific clarifying regarding the impairment of motor skills by swaddling.


Sudden infant death syndrome

The effects of swaddling on the
sudden infant death syndrome Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the sudden unexplained death of a child of less than one year of age. Diagnosis requires that the death remain unexplained even after a thorough autopsy and detailed death scene investigation. SIDS usuall ...
(SIDS) are unclear. A 2016 review found tentative evidence that swaddling increases risk of SIDS, especially among babies placed on their stomachs or side while sleeping. Swaddling was supposed to keep babies on their back, in order to prevent SIDS. Swaddling itself is not seen as a protective factor for SIDS. Swaddling may even increase the risk when babies sleep in the prone position; it reduces the risk if they sleep in the supine position. A recent study demonstrated now, that swaddling is apparently a risk factor for SIDS, although the opposite was often previously assumed: Of the babies who died of SIDS, 24% were swaddled; in the control-groups only 6% were swaddled.


Documented negative effects

Several empirical studies show evidence of negative effects of swaddling. * Swaddling, especially traditional forms, increases the risk for hip dysplasia. * Tight swaddling, particularly where the head is covered, reduces the baby's ability to cool its body temperature which can lead to hyperthermia. In one case, a heavily wrapped child died of hyperthermia. *In one study, the risk of developing respiratory infections increased fourfold by swaddling. * A pediatrician found in his sample the flattening of the occipital aspect of the head of babies, who were wrapped tightly and lay in their traditional cradles. * Tight chest wrapping or swaddling has been associated with an increased risk of pneumonia. Traditional tight swaddling simulates a strait jacket and prevents baby from moving their arms to self-settle. * In the most important contemporary study on swaddling practices in maternity wards by Bystrova et al., it is shown that swaddling in the hours after birth is linked with delayed recovery from post-natal weight loss. A positive effect on the recovery is given by direct skin-to-skin contact between mother and baby in the hours after birth. Skin-to-skin contact was shown to reduce the impact of the stress of being born, with babies maintaining their body temperature to a greater degree than those swaddled in a nursery. * An investigation has indicated that maternal behavior develops less under swaddling conditions, and reciprocity within the mother-child dyad is reduced.See Bystrova (2008), p. 46.


See also

*
Babywearing Babywearing is the practice of wearing or carrying a baby in a sling or in another form of carrier. Babywearing has been practiced for centuries around the world. Babywearing is a form of baby transport which can be used for as long as mutually d ...
*
Childbirth Childbirth, also known as labour and delivery, is the ending of pregnancy where one or more babies exits the internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section. In 2019, there were about 140.11 million births globall ...
*
Infant massage Infant massage is a type of complementary and alternative medicine, complementary and alternative treatment that uses massage therapy for babies. Evidence is insufficient to support its use in either full term or preterm babies to achieve physical ...
* Infant's binder *
Kangaroo care Kangaroo care also called skin-to-skin contact (SSC), is a technique of newborn care where babies are kept chest-to-chest and skin-to-skin with a parent, typically their mother (occasionally their father). Kangaroo care, named for the similarity ...
*
Psychohistory Psychohistory is an amalgam of psychology, history, and related social sciences and the humanities. Its proponents claim to examine the "why" of history, especially the difference between stated intention and actual behavior. Psychobiography, chil ...
*
Sleeping bag (infant) A sleeping bag is an insulated covering for a person, essentially a lightweight quilt that can be closed with a zipper or similar means to form a tube, which functions as lightweight, portable bedding in situations where a person is sleeping o ...


Notes


References

*Adolph, Karen E.; Karasik (Vishnevetsky), Lana B.; Tamis-LeMonda, Catherine S. (2010). Moving Between Cultures: Cross-Cultural Research on Motor Development. In: Marc H. Bornstein (Hg.). Handbook of cross-cultural developmental science, Vol. 1, Domains of development across cultures. New York. (S. 61-88) *Akman, Alp; Korkmaz, Ayşe; Aksoy, M. Cemalettin; Yazici, Muharrem; Yurdakök, Murat, Tekinalp, Gülsevin (2007). Evaluation of risk factors in developmental dysplasia of the hip: results of infantile hip ultrasonography. In:
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, 49, S. 290–294. *Bacon, C. J.; Bell, S. A.; Clulow, E E; Beattie, A. B. (1991). How mothers keep their babies warm. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 66, S. 627–632. *Blair, Peter S.; Sidebotham, Peter; Evason-Coombe, Carol; Edmonds, Margaret; Fleming, Peter. (2009). Hazardous cosleeping environments and risk factors amenable to change: case-control study of SIDS in south west England. British Medical Journal, 339, b3666. *BMJ 2009;339:b3666 yo *Bloch, Aaron (1966). The Kurdistani Cradle Story: A Modern Analysis of This Centuries-Old Infant Swaddling Practice. In: Clinical Pediatrics, 5, 641–645. *Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995). "Swaddling". The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (reprint, revised ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. pp. 670.
books.google.com
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, 33, S. 117–120. *Chaarani, M.W.; Al Mahmeid, M.S.; Salman, A.M. (2002). Developmental dysplasia of the hip before and after increasing community awareness of the harmful effects of swaddling. In: Qatar Medical Journal, 11 (1), S. 40–43. *Cheng, Tina L.; Partridge, J. Colin (1993). Effect of Bundling and High Environmental Temperature on Neonatal Body Temperature. In: Pediatrics, 92, S. 238–240. *Chisholm, James S. (1983). Navajo infancy: an ethological study of child development. New York. *Danzinger, Lotte, Frankl, Liselotte (1934). Zum Problem der Funktionsreifung: erster Bericht über Entwicklungsprüfungen an albanischen Kindern. In: Zeitschrift für Kinderforschung, 43, S. 219–254. *DeMause, Lloyd (2002). The Emotional Life of Nations. Other Press. p. 322. . *DeMeo, James (2006). Saharasia: The 4000 BCE Origins of Child Abuse, Sex-Repression, Warfare and Social Violence, In the Deserts of the Old World (Revised Second ed.). Natural Energy Works. . *Dennis, Wayne (1940 a). Infant Reaction to Restraint: An Evaluation of Watson's Theory. In: Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2 (2), S. 202–219. *Dennis, Wayne (1940 b). The Hopi Child. New York. *Fearon, Isabel; Kisilevsky, Barbara; Mains, Sylvia; Muir, Darwin W.; Tranmer, Joan. (1997). Swaddling After Heel Lance: Age-Specific Effects on Behavioral Recovery in Preterm Infants. In: Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 18 (4), S. 222–232. *Franco, Patricia; Seret, Nicole; van Hees, Jean-Noël; Scaillet, Sonia; Groswasser, José; Kahn, André (2005). Influence of Swaddling on Sleep and Arousal Characteristics of Healthy Infants: Pediatrics, 115, 1307–1311. *Frenken, Ralph (2011 a). Gefesselte Kinder: Geschichte und Psychologie des Wickelns. Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Bachmann. Badenweiler. *Frenken, Ralph (2011 b). Psychology and history of swaddling: Part two – The abolishment of swaddling from the 16th century until today. In: The Journal of Psychohistory, 39 (3), p. 219-245. *Gerard, Claudia, Harris, Kathleen A., Thach, Bradley T., (2002 a). Spontaneous Arousals in Supine Infants While Swaddled and Unswaddled During Rapid Eye Movement and Quiet Sleep: Pediatrics, 110, S. e70-e77 * *Gerard, Claudia M.; Harris Kathleen A., Thach, Bradley T. (2002 b). Physiologic studies on swaddling: An ancient child care practice, which may promote the supine position for infant sleep. Journal of Pediatrics, 141, S. 398–404. *Gilbert, R., Rudd, P; Berry, P. J.: Fleming, P. J.; Hall, E.; White, D. G.; Oreffo, V. O., James, P.; Evans, J. A. (1992). Combined effect of infection and heavy wrapping on the risk of sudden unexpectedinfant death. In: Archives of Disease in Childhood, 67, S. 171–177. *Gilbert, R. (1994). The changing epidemiology of SIDS. In: Archives of Disease in Childhood, 70, S. 445–449. *Kennell, J. H.; McGrath, S.K. (2003). Beneficial effects of skin-to-skin contact. In: Acta Paediatrica, 92, S. 272–273. *Kremli, Mamoun K.; Alshahid, Ahmed H.; Khoshhal, Khalid I.; Zamzam, Mohammed M. (2003). The pattern of developmental dysplasia of the hip: In: Saudi Medical Journal, 24 (10), S. 1118–1120. *Kutlu, Abdurrahman; Memik, Recep; Mutlu, Mahmut; Kutlu, Ruhusen; Arslan, Ahmet (1992). Congenital Dislocation of the Hip and Its Relation to Swaddling Used in Turkey. In: Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 12, S. 598–602. *Lipton, Earle L., Steinschneider, Alfred, Richmond, Julius B. (1965). Swaddling, a Child Care Practice: Historical, Cultural, and Experimental Observations: Pediatrics, 35, S. 521–567. *Long, Tony (2007). Adding swaddling to behaviour modification in infant care did not reduce excessive crying in healthy infants <13 weeks of age at randomisation. Evidence Based Nursing,10, S. 42. * * *Mafart, B.; Kéfi, R.; Béraud-Colomb, E. (2007). Palaeopathological and Palaeogenetic Study of 13 Cases of Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip with Dislocation in a Historical Population from Southern France. In: International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 17, S. 26–38. *Mahan, Susan T.; Kasser, James R., (2008). Does Swaddling Influence Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip? Pediatrics, 121, S. 177–178. *Meyer, L. E.; Erler, T. (2009). Schlafqualität bei Säuglingen: Polysomnographisch gestützter Vergleich unter Wickel-(Swaddling-) Bedingungen. In: Somnologie, 13, S. 24–28. *Nelson, Edmund Anthony Severn; Schiefenhoevel, Wulf; Haimerl, Felizitas (2000). Child Care Practices in Nonindustrialized Societies. In: Pediatrics, 105, S. e75. *Odent, Michel (12/23/2007). "The Future of Suicide". Birth Works, Inc
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*Van Gestel, Josephus Petrus Johannes, L’Hoir, Monique Pauline, ten Berge, Maartje, Jansen, Nicolaas Johannes Georgius, Plötz, Frans Berend (2002). Risks of Ancient Practices in Modern Times. In: Pediatrics, 110, S. 78–88. *Van Sleuwen, B. E.; L’Hoir, M. P.; Engelberts, A. C.; Westers, P.; Schulpen, T. W. J. (2003). Infant care practices related to cot death in Turkish and Moroccan families in the Netherlands. In: Archives of Disease in Childhood, 88, S. 784–788. *Van Sleuwen, B. E., L’Hoir, M. P.; Engelberts, A. C.; Busschers, W. B.; Westers, P.; Blom, M. A. et al. (2006). Comparison of behavior modification with and without swaddling as interventions for excessive crying. In: Journal of Pediatrics, 149 (4), S. 512–517. *Van Sleuwen, Bregje E.; Engelberts, Adèle C.; Boere-Boonekamp, Magda M.; Kuis, Wietse, Schulpen, Tom W.J.; L'Hoir, Monique P. (2007). Swaddling: A Systematic Review. In: Pediatrics, 120, S. e1097-e1106. *Würtz, Felix (1612). Kinderbüchlein. In: Felix Würtz. Wund-Artzney. Basel. p. 674-730. (First edition 1612, printed 1675): Felix Wuertzen / Weiland des berühmten Wundarztes zu Basel Wund-Artzney / darinnen allerhand schädliche Missbräuche (...). *Young Holliday, Diane (2005). Occipital lesions: A possible cost of cradleboards. In: American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 90 (3), S. 283–290. *Yurdakok, Kadrye; Yavuz, Tuna; Taylor, Carl E. (1990). Swaddling and Acute Respiratory Infections. In: American Journal of Public Health, 80 (7), S. 873–875.


External links

{{Commons, Swaddling
Terracotta of a swaddled infant in Royal Museum of Art and History, Brussels
Sharon Ann Burnston Infants' clothing Corsetry Physical restraint Babycare