Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a
position
Position often refers to:
* Position (geometry), the spatial location (rather than orientation) of an entity
* Position, a job or occupation
Position may also refer to:
Games and recreation
* Position (poker), location relative to the dealer
* ...
with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic
abstract noun
A noun () is a word that generally functions as the name of a specific object or set of objects, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.Example nouns for:
* Living creatures (including people, alive, d ...
meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the
verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who claimed almost full sovereignty (i.e., not having dependence on any higher ruler) without claiming the overall
caliphate, or to refer to a powerful
governor of a province within the caliphate. The adjectival form of the word is "sultanic", and the
state and territories ruled by a sultan, as well as his office, are referred to as a sultanate ( '
).
The term is distinct from
king ( '), despite both referring to a sovereign ruler. The use of "sultan" is restricted to Muslim countries, where the title carries religious significance,
contrasting the more secular ''king'', which is used in both Muslim and non-Muslim countries.
Brunei and
Oman are the only independent countries which retain the title "sultan" for their monarchs. In recent years, the title has been gradually replaced by "king" by contemporary hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law. A notable example is
Morocco, whose monarch changed his title from sultan to king in 1957.
History of the term
The word derives from the Arabic and Semitic root ''salaṭa'' "to be hard, strong". The noun ''sulṭān'' initially designated a kind of moral authority or spiritual power (as opposed to political power), and it is used in this sense several times in the
Qur'an.
In the
early Muslim world, ultimate power and authority was theoretically held by the caliph, who was considered the leader of the caliphate. The increasing political fragmentation of the Muslim world after the 8th century, however, challenged this consensus. Local governors with administrative authority held the title of ''amir'' (traditionally translated as "commander" or "prince") and were appointed by the caliph, but in the 9th century some of these became ''
de facto'' independent rulers who founded their own dynasties, such as the
Aghlabids and
Tulunids.
Towards the late 10th century, the term "sultan" begins to be used to denote an individual ruler with practically sovereign authority,
although the early evolution of the term is complicated and difficult to establish.
The first major figure to clearly grant himself this title was the
Ghaznavid ruler
Mahmud (r. 998–1030 CE) who controlled an empire over present-day
Afghanistan and the surrounding region.
Soon after, the
Great Seljuks
The Great Seljuk Empire, or the Seljuk Empire was a high medieval, culturally Turko-Persian, Sunni Muslim empire, founded and ruled by the Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks. It spanned a total area of from Anatolia and the Levant in the west to th ...
adopted this title after defeating the Ghaznavid Empire and taking control of an even larger territory which included
Baghdad, the capital of the
Abbasid caliphs. The early Seljuk leader
Tughril Bey
Abu Talib Muhammad Tughril ibn Mika'il ( fa, ابوطالب محمد تغریل بن میکائیل), better known as Tughril (; also spelled Toghril), was a Turkmen"The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes
by the Turko ...
was the first leader to adopt the epithet "sultan" on his
coinage.
While the Seljuks acknowledged the caliphs in Baghdad formally as the universal leader of the
Muslim community, their own political power clearly overshadowed the latter. This led to various Muslim scholars – notably
Al-Juwayni and
Al-Ghazali – attempting to develop theoretical justifications for the political authority of the Seljuk sultans within the framework of the formal supreme authority of the recognized caliphs. In general, the theories maintained that all legitimate authority derived from the caliph, but that it was delegated to sovereign rulers whom the caliph recognized. Al-Ghazali, for example, argued that while the caliph was the guarantor of Islamic law (''
shari'a''), coercive power was required to enforce the law in practice and the leader who exercised that power directly was the sultan.
The position of sultan continued to grow in importance during the period of the
Crusades, when leaders who held the title of "sultan" (such as
Salah ad-Din
(, plural , romanized: or Old Arabic ͡sˤaˈloːh, ( or Old Arabic ͡sˤaˈloːtʰin construct state) ), also known as ( fa, نماز) and also spelled , are prayers performed by Muslims. Facing the , the direction of the Kaaba ...
and the
Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty ( ar, الأيوبيون '; ) was the founding dynasty of the medieval Sultan of Egypt, Sultanate of Egypt established by Saladin in 1171, following his abolition of the Fatimid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. A Sunni ...
) led the confrontation against the
Crusader states
The Crusader States, also known as Outremer, were four Catholic realms in the Middle East that lasted from 1098 to 1291. These feudal polities were created by the Latin Catholic leaders of the First Crusade through conquest and political in ...
in the
Levant.
Views about the office of the sultan further developed during the crisis that followed the
destruction of Baghdad by the
Mongols in 1258, which eliminated the remnants of Abbasid political power. Thenceforth, the surviving descendants of the Abbasid caliphs lived in
Cairo under the protection of the
Mamluks
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') i ...
and were still nominally recognized by the latter. However, from this time on they effectively had no authority and were not universally recognized across the Sunni Muslim world.
As protectors of the line of the Abbasid caliphs, the Mamluks recognized themselves as sultans and the Muslim scholar Khalil al-Zahiri argued that only they could hold that title.
Nonetheless, in practice, many Muslim rulers of this period were now using the title as well. Mongol rulers (who had since converted to Islam) and other Turkish rulers were among those who did so.
The position of sultan and caliph began to blend together in the 16th century when the
Ottoman Empire conquered the Mamluk Empire and became the indisputable leading Sunni Muslim power across most of the
Middle East,
North Africa, and
Eastern Europe. The 16th-century Ottoman scholar and jurist,
Ebüssuûd Mehmet Efendi, recognized the
Ottoman sultan
The sultans of the Ottoman Empire ( tr, Osmanlı padişahları), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its hei ...
(
Suleiman the Magnificent at the time) as the caliph and universal leader of all Muslims.
This conflation of sultan and caliph became more clearly emphasized in the 19th century during the Ottoman Empire's territorial decline, when Ottoman authorities sought to cast the sultan as the leader of the entire Muslim community in the face of European (
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
)
colonial expansion.
As part of this narrative, it was claimed that when Sultan
Selim I captured Cairo in 1517, the last descendant of the Abbasids in Cairo formally passed on the position of caliph to him.
This combination thus elevated the sultan's religious or spiritual authority, in addition to his formal political authority.
During this later period, the title of sultan was still used outside the Ottoman Empire as well, as with the examples of the
Somali aristocrats,
Malay nobles and the
sultans of Morocco
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it c ...
(such as the
Alaouite dynasty
The Alawi dynasty ( ar, سلالة العلويين الفيلاليين, translit=sulālat al-ʿalawiyyīn al-fīlāliyyīn) – also rendered in English as Alaouite, Alawid, or Alawite – is the current Morocco, Moroccan royal family and re ...
founded in the 17th century).
It was, however, not used as a sovereign title by
Shi'a
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his S ...
Muslim rulers. The
Safavid dynasty
The Safavid dynasty (; fa, دودمان صفوی, Dudmâne Safavi, ) was one of Iran's most significant ruling dynasties reigning from 1501 to 1736. Their rule is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, as well as one of th ...
of
Iran, who controlled the largest Shi'a Muslim state of this era, mainly used the
Persian title ''
Shah'', a tradition which continued under subsequent dynasties. The term ''sultan'', by contrast, was mainly given to provincial governors within their realm.
Feminine forms
As a feminine form of ''sultan'', used by Westerners, is
Sultana or Sultanah and this title has been used legally for some (not all)
Muslim women monarchs and sultan's mothers and chief consorts. However,
Turkish
Turkish may refer to:
*a Turkic language spoken by the Turks
* of or about Turkey
** Turkish language
*** Turkish alphabet
** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
*** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey
*** Turkish communities and mi ...
and
Ottoman Turkish
Ottoman Turkish ( ota, لِسانِ عُثمانى, Lisân-ı Osmânî, ; tr, Osmanlı Türkçesi) was the standardized register of the Turkish language used by the citizens of the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extens ...
also uses ''sultan'' for imperial lady, as
Turkish grammar uses the same words for both women and men. However, this styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans. In a similar usage, the wife of a German
field marshal
Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army and as such few persons are appointed to it. It is considered as ...
might be styled ''Frau Feldmarschall'' (similarly, in French, constructions of the type ''madame la maréchale'' were historically used for the wives of office-holders). The female leaders in
Muslim history are correctly known as "sultanas". However, the wife of the sultan in the
Sultanate of Sulu is styled as the "panguian" while the sultan's chief wife in many sultanates of
Indonesia and
Malaysia are known as "permaisuri", "Tunku Ampuan", "Raja Perempuan", or "Tengku Ampuan". The
queen consort in
Brunei especially is known as ''Raja Isteri'' with the title of ''Pengiran Anak'' suffixed, should the queen consort also be a royal princess.
Compound ruler titles
These are generally secondary titles, either lofty 'poetry' or with a message, e.g.:
*''Mani Sultan'' – ''Manney Sultan'' (meaning the "Pearl of Rulers" or "Honoured Monarch") – a subsidiary title, part of the full style of the
Maharaja of
Travancore
* ''
Sultan of Sultans
Sultan of Sultans is the literal English translation of the Ottoman Turkish royal title ''Sulṭānü's-Selāṭīn''. The title was firstly used by Sultan of Delhi Sultanate in Persian context.
As with various other laudatory titles of Semi ...
'' – the sultanic equivalent of the style
King of Kings
King of Kings; grc-gre, Βασιλεὺς Βασιλέων, Basileùs Basiléōn; hy, արքայից արքա, ark'ayits ark'a; sa, महाराजाधिराज, Mahārājadhirāja; ka, მეფეთ მეფე, ''Mepet mepe'' ...
* Certain secondary titles have a devout Islamic connotation; e.g.,
Sultan ul-Mujahidin
''Mujahideen'', or ''Mujahidin'' ( ar, مُجَاهِدِين, mujāhidīn), is the plural form of ''mujahid'' ( ar, مجاهد, mujāhid, strugglers or strivers or justice, right conduct, Godly rule, etc. doers of jihād), an Arabic term th ...
as champion of
jihad
Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with Go ...
(to strive and to struggle in the name of Allah).
* ''Sultanic Highness'' – a rare, hybrid western-Islamic honorific style exclusively used by the son, daughter-in-law and daughters of Sultan
Hussein Kamel of Egypt (a
British protectorate since 1914), who bore it with their primary titles of
Prince ('; ) or
Princess, after 11 October 1917. They enjoyed these titles for life, even after the Royal Rescript regulating the styles and titles of the Royal House following Egypt's
independence in 1922, when the sons and daughters of the newly styled king (', considered a promotion) were granted the title , or
Royal Highness.
*''Sultan-ul-Qaum'' – a title meaning King of the Nation, given to 18th-century
Sikh
Sikhs ( or ; pa, ਸਿੱਖ, ' ) are people who adhere to Sikhism, Sikhism (Sikhi), a Monotheism, monotheistic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Gu ...
leader
Jassa Singh Ahluwalia by his supporters
Former sultans and sultanates
Sultanates in Anatolia and Central Asia
*
Ghaznavid Empire; its ruler,
Mahmud of Ghazni
Yamīn-ud-Dawla Abul-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn ( fa, ; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi ( fa, ), was the founder of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty, ruling from 998 to 1030. At th ...
, was the first
Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
sovereign to be known as sultan.
*
Great Seljuk Empire
*
Sultanate of Rum
fa, سلجوقیان روم ()
, status =
, government_type = Hereditary monarchyTriarchy (1249–1254)Diarchy (1257–1262)
, year_start = 1077
, year_end = 1308
, p1 = By ...
*
Ottoman Empire
*
Timurid Empire
Caucasus
*
Elisu Sultanate and a few others. A Sultan ranked below a Khan.
Levant and Arabian peninsula
*in
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
:
**
Ayyubid Sultans
**
Mamluk Sultans
*in present-day
Yemen, various small sultanates of the defunct
Aden Protectorate and
South Arabia
South Arabia () is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jizan, Al-Bahah, and 'Asi ...
:
*:
Audhali,
Fadhli
Fadhli ( ar, فضلي '), or the Fadhli Sultanate ( ar, السلطنة الفضلية '), was an independent sultanate on the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula from the 17th century until 1967. ,
Haushabi,
Kathiri,
Lahej,
Lower Aulaqi,
Lower Yafa,
Mahra,
Qu'aiti,
Subeihi,
Upper Aulaqi,
Upper Yafa and the
Wahidi
Wahidi ( ar, واحدي ') is a former sultanate in South Arabia, now part of Yemen. In the 19th century it was subdivided into several sultanates. These included:
*Wahidi Balhaf (known from 1962–1967 simply as Wahidi)
**Wahidi Azzan
*Wahidi B ...
sultanates
*in present-day
Saudi Arabia:
**
Sultans of Nejd
**
Sultans of the Hejaz
*
Oman –
Sultan of Oman
The sultan of the Sultanate of Oman is the monarchical head of state and head of government of Oman. It is the most powerful position in the country. The sultans of Oman are members of the Busaid dynasty, which has been the ruling family of O ...
(authentically referred to as ''Hami''), on the southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, still an independent sultanate, since 1744 (assumed the formal title of Sultan in 1861)
North Africa
*in
Algeria:
Sultanate of Tuggurt
The Sultanate of Tuggurt was a state that extended over Tuggurt, the oases of the neighbouring region and the Oued Righ valley between the fifteenth century and 1881. It was governed by sultans of the Banu Djellab dynasty.
Background
The cit ...
,
Sultans of Tlemcen
*in
Egypt:
**
Ayyubid Sultans
**
Mamluk Sultans
**
Sultans of the Muhammad Ali dynasty
*in
Morocco, until
Mohammed V changed the style to
Malik
Malik, Mallik, Melik, Malka, Malek, Maleek, Malick, Mallick, or Melekh ( phn, 𐤌𐤋𐤊; ar, ملك; he, מֶלֶךְ) is the Semitic term translating to "king", recorded in East Semitic and Arabic, and as mlk in Northwest Semitic duri ...
(king) on August 14, 1957, maintaining the subsidiary style
Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful)
*in
Sudan
Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
:
**
Darfur
Darfur ( ; ar, دار فور, Dār Fūr, lit=Realm of the Fur) is a region of western Sudan. ''Dār'' is an Arabic word meaning "home f – the region was named Dardaju ( ar, دار داجو, Dār Dājū, links=no) while ruled by the Daju, ...
**Dar al-Masalit
**Dar Qimr
**
Funj Sultanate of
Sinnar (Sennar)
**
Kordofan
*in
Chad
Chad (; ar, تشاد , ; french: Tchad, ), officially the Republic of Chad, '; ) is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic ...
:
**
Baguirmi (main native title:
Mbang)
**
Wada'i (main native title:
Kolak), successor state to Birgu
**
Dar Sila (actually a wandering group of tribes)
Horn of Africa
*
Ajuran Sultanate, in southern Somalia and eastern Ethiopia
*
Adal Sultanate, in western
Somaliland
Somaliland,; ar, صوماليلاند ', ' officially the Republic of Somaliland,, ar, جمهورية صوماليلاند, link=no ''Jumhūrīyat Ṣūmālīlānd'' is a ''de facto'' sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, still conside ...
, southern
Djibouti, and the
Somali,
Harari and
Afar
Afar may refer to:
Peoples and languages
*Afar language, an East Cushitic language
*Afar people, an ethnic group of Djibouti, Eritrea, and Ethiopia
Places Horn of Africa
*Afar Desert or Danakil Desert, a desert in Ethiopia
*Afar Region, a region ...
regions of
Ethiopia
*
Isaaq Sultanate, in Somaliland and the
Somali region of Ethiopia
*
Habr Yunis Sultanate, in Somaliland and
Somali region of Ethiopia
*
Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia), in northern Somalia
*
Sultanate of the Geledi, in southern Somalia
*
Sultanate of Aussa, in northeastern Ethiopia
*
Sultanate of Harar, in eastern Ethiopia
*
Sultanate of Hobyo, in central Somalia
*
Sultanate of Ifat, in Somaliland, Djibouti and eastern Ethiopia
*
Sultanate of Mogadishu, in south-central Somalia
*
Sultanate of Showa, in central Ethiopia
*
Bimaal Sultanate, in south eastern Somalia centred in
Merka
Southeast Africa and Indian Ocean
*
Angoche Sultanate, on the
Mozambiquan coast (also several neighbouring sheikdoms)
*various
sultans on the Comoros
Several sultanates on the Comoros, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean with an ethnically complex mix, were founded after the introduction of Islam into the area in the 15th century. Other uses depending on the island could also be styled ''fani ...
; however on the
Comoros
The Comoros,, ' officially the Union of the Comoros,; ar, الاتحاد القمري ' is an independent country made up of three islands in southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. It ...
, the normally used styles were alternative native titles, including
Mfalme,
Phany
Several sultanates on the Comoros, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean with an ethnically complex mix, were founded after the introduction of Islam into the area in the 15th century. Other uses depending on the island could also be styled ''fani ...
or ''Jambé'' and the 'hegemonic' title
Sultani tibe
*the Maore (or Mawuti) sultanate on
Mayotte (separated from the Comoros)
''Maliki''
Apparently derived from the Arabic ''
malik
Malik, Mallik, Melik, Malka, Malek, Maleek, Malick, Mallick, or Melekh ( phn, 𐤌𐤋𐤊; ar, ملك; he, מֶלֶךְ) is the Semitic term translating to "king", recorded in East Semitic and Arabic, and as mlk in Northwest Semitic duri ...
'', this was the alternative native style of the sultans of the
Kilwa Sultanate
The Kilwa Sultanate ( fa, پادشاهی کیلوا) was a sultanate, centered at Kilwa Kisiwani, Kilwa (an island off modern-day, Kilwa District in Lindi Region of Tanzania), whose authority, at its height, stretched over the entire length of t ...
in
Tanganyika (presently the continental part of Tanzania).
Swahili Coast
*
Sultanate of Zanzibar: two incumbents (from the Omani dynasty) since the de facto separation from Oman in 1806, the last assumed the title Sultan in 1861 at the formal separation under British auspices; since 1964 union with Tanganyika (part of
Tanzania)
''Mfalume'' is the title of various native Muslim rulers, generally rendered in Arabic and in western languages as Sultan:
*in
Kenya:
**
Pate
Pate, pâté, or paté may refer to:
Foods Pâté 'pastry'
* Pâté, various French meat forcemeat pies or loaves
* Pâté haïtien or Haitian patty, a meat-filled puff pastry dish
* ''Pate'' or ''paté'' (anglicized spellings), the Virgin Isla ...
on part of
Pate island (capital also named Pate), in the
Lamu Archipelago
The Lamu Archipelago is located in the Indian Ocean close to the northern coast of Kenya, to which it belongs. The islands lie between the towns of Lamu and Kiunga, near the Coast Province. It is a part of Lamu District.
The largest of the isl ...
**
Wituland, became a German, then
British protectorate
*in
Tanganyika (presently part of
Tanzania): of Hadimu, on the island of that name; also styled ''Jembe''
''Sultani''
This was the native ruler's title in the Tanzanian state of Uhehe.
West and Central Africa
*In
Cameroon:
**
Bamoun (Bamun, 17th century, founded uniting 17 chieftaincies) 1918 becomes a sultanate, but in 1923 re-divided into the 17 original chieftaincies.
**
Bibemi
Bibemi is a town and commune in Cameroon.
Notable people
* Goggo Addi (1911–1999), storyteller who worked to preserve Fulani cultural heritage
See also
*Communes of Cameroon
The Arrondissements of Cameroon are the third-level units of ad ...
, founded in 1770 - initially styled ''
lamido''
**
Mandara Sultanate, since 1715 (replacing
Wandala kingdom); 1902 Part of Cameroon
**
Rey Bouba Sultanate founded 1804
*in the
Central African Republic:
**
Bangassou
Bangassou is a city in the south eastern Central African Republic, lying on the north bank of the Mbomou River. It has a population of 24,447 (2003 census) and is the capital of the Mbomou prefecture. It is known for its wildlife, market, and near ...
created c.1878; 14 June 1890 under
Congo Free State
''(Work and Progress)
, national_anthem = Vers l'avenir
, capital = Vivi Boma
, currency = Congo Free State franc
, religion = Catholicism (''de facto'')
, leader1 = Leopo ...
protectorate, 1894 under French protectorate; 1917 Sultanate suppressed by the French.
**Dar al-Kuti - French protectorate since December 12, 1897
**
Rafai c. 1875 Sultanate, April 8, 1892, under Congo Free State protectorate, March 31, 1909, under French protectorate; 1939 Sultanate suppressed
**
Zemio c. 1872 established; December 11, 1894, under Congo Free State protectorate, April 12, 1909, under French protectorate; 1923 Sultanate suppressed
*in
Niger:
Arabic alternative title of the following autochthonous rulers:
** the
Amenokal of the
Aïr confederation of
Tuareg
** the Sarkin Damagaram since the 1731 founding of the
Sultanate of Damagaram (
Zinder)
*in
Nigeria most monarchies previously had native titles, but when most in the north converted to Islam, Muslim titles were adopted, such as ''
emir'' and sometimes ''sultan''.
** in
Borno (alongside the native title ''Mai'')
** since 1817 in
Sokoto, the suzerain (also styled
Amir al-Mu´minin
Amir al-Mu'minin ( ar, أَمِير ٱلْمُؤْمِنِين, amīr al-muʾminīn) is an Arabic title designating the supreme leader of an Islamic community. It is usually translated as "Commander of the Faithful", though sometimes also as "Prin ...
and Sarkin Musulmi) of all
Fulbe jihad state
The Fula (or Fulani) jihads ( ar, جهاد الفولا) sometimes called the Fulani revolution were a series of jihads that occurred across West Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries, led largely by the Muslim Fula people. The jihads and ...
s and premier traditional Muslim leader in the
Sahel
The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid c ...
(according to some once a caliph)
Southern Asia
*
Afghan Kingdom: Sultan had a different meaning. It was a high title of honour, superior to Amir and Sardar, but ranking below Shah.
*
Bahmani Sultanate
The Bahmani Sultanate, or Deccan, was a Persianate Sunni Muslim Indian Kingdom located in the Deccan region. It was the first independent Muslim kingdom of the Deccan, : Bahmani Shahs
*
Sultanate of Bengal:
Ilyas Shahi,
Ganesha, Habshi,
Hussain Shahi, Muhammad Shah and
Karranis
*
Sultanates of the Deccan:
**
Adil Shahi of Bijapur
**
Barid Shahi of Bidar
**
Imad Shahi of Berar
**
Nizam Shahi of Ahmednagar
**
Qutb Shahi of Golconda
*
Sultanate of Delhi
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). :
Mamluks
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') i ...
,
Khiljis
The Khalji or Khilji (Pashto language, Pashto: ; Persian language, Persian: ) dynasty was a Turkic people, Turco-Afghans, Afghan dynasty which ruled the Delhi sultanate, covering large parts of the Indian subcontinent for nearly three decad ...
,
Tughlaqs,
Sayyids and
Lodis
*
Sultanate of Gujarat:
Muzaffarids
*
Sultanate of Jaunpur: Sharqi dynasty
*
Sultanate of Kandesh: Faruqi dynasty
*
Sultanate of Malwa
The Malwa Sultanate ( fa, ) (Pashto: ; ''lit: Mālwā Salṭanat'') was a late medieval Islamic sultanate in the Malwa region, covering the present day Indian states of Madhya Pradesh and south-eastern Rajasthan from 1392 to 1562. It was f ...
: three dynasties
*
Sultanate of Madurai
*Sultanate of Laccadive and Cannanore:
Arakkal Kingdom
*
Sultanate of Kashmir:
Shahmirids and
Chaks
*
Sultanate of Maldives
Maldives (, ; dv, ދިވެހިރާއްޖެ, translit=Dhivehi Raajje, ), officially the Republic of Maldives ( dv, ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭގެ ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ, translit=Dhivehi Raajjeyge Jumhooriyyaa, label=none, ), is an archipela ...
Southeast and East Asia
In
Indonesia (formerly in the
Dutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies ( nl, Nederlands(ch)-Indië; ), was a Dutch colony consisting of what is now Indonesia. It was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company, which ...
):
*On
Kalimantan
Kalimantan () is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It constitutes 73% of the island's area. The non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are Brunei and East Malaysia. In Indonesia, "Kalimantan" refers to the whole island of Borneo.
In 2019, ...
**
Sultanate of Banjar
**Sultanate of Berau
**
Sultanate of Bulungan
**Sultanate of Gunung Tabur
**Sultanate of Kubu
**
Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate
**Sultanate of Mempawah
**Sultanate of Paser
**
Sultanate of Pontianak
The Pontianak Sultanate (Malay: كسلطانن ڤونتيناك, ''Kesultanan Pontianak'') was an Islamic Malay state that existed on the western coast of the island of Borneo from the late 18th century until its disestablishment in 1950. The S ...
**Sultanate of Sambaliung
**
Sultanate of Sambas
*On
Sulawesi
Sulawesi (), also known as Celebes (), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the world's eleventh-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Mindanao and the Sulu Ar ...
**Sultanate of Buton
**
Sultanate of Bone
**
Sultanate of Gowa
**
Sultanate of Luwu
**Sultanate of Soppeng
**
Sultanate of Wajoq
*On
Java
**
Sultanate of Banten
**
Sultanate of Cirebon - the rulers in three of the four palaces (''kraton''), from which divided
Cirebon was ruled:
Kraton Kasepuhan,
Kraton Kanoman and Kraton Kacirebonan (only in Kraton Kaprabonan was the ruler's title Panembahan)
**
Sultanate of Demak
The Demak Sultanate (کسلطانن دمق) was a Javanese Muslim state located on Java's north coast in Indonesia, at the site of the present-day city of Demak. A port fief to the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit kingdom thought to have been founded ...
**
Sultanate of Pajang
The Kingdom of Pajang or Sultanate of Pajang (كسلطانن ڤاجڠ ;1586–1568) was a short-lived Muslim state in Java. It was established by Hadiwijaya or Jaka Tingkir, Lord of Boyolali, after a civil war and was a successor to Sultanate o ...
**Sumedang Larang Sultanate
**
Sultanate of Mataram (was divided into two kingdoms: the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and Sunanan Surakarta)
***
Sultanate of Yogyakarta
The Sultanate of Yogyakarta ( jv, ꦏꦱꦸꦭ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦤꦤ꧀ꦔꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦡꦲꦢꦶꦤꦶꦔꦿꦠ꧀, Kasultanan Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat ; ) is a Javanese monarchy in Yogyakarta Special Region, in the Republic o ...
(The Divine Sultanate of which its ruler Sri Sultan Hamengkubowono is considered a divine being, a half God)
***
Sunanate of Surakarta (''
susuhunan'', a high-ranked monarch, equivalent to emperor)
*In the
Maluku Islands
**
Sultanate of Iha (Saparua)
**Sultanate of Honimoa/ Siri Sori (Saparua)
** (West Seram)
** (Ambon)
** (Ambon)
**
Sultanate of Ternate
The Sultanate of Ternate (Jawi alphabet: كسلطانن ترنتاي), previously also known as the Kingdom of Gapi is one of the oldest Muslim kingdoms in Indonesia besides Tidore, Jailolo, and Bacan. The Ternate kingdom was established by ...
**
Sultanate of Tidore
**
Sultanate of Bacan
The Sultanate of Bacan (كسلطانن باچن) was a state in Maluku Islands, present-day Indonesia that arose with the expansion of the spice trade in late medieval times. It mainly consisted of the Bacan Islands (Bacan, Kasiruta, Mandioli, etc ...
**
Sultanate of Jailolo
The Sultanate of Jailolo (كسلطانن جايلولو) was a premodern state in Maluku, modern Indonesia that emerged with the increasing trade in cloves in the Middle Ages. Also spelt Gilolo, it was one of the four kingdoms of Maluku together ...
**Sultanate of Loloda (North Halmahera)
*In the
Nusa Tenggara
**
Bima Sultanate on Sumbawa island
*In the
Riau Archipelago: sultanate of
Lingga-Riau by secession in 1818 under the expelled sultan of
Johore (on Malaya) Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud
*In
Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
**
Aceh Sultanate
The Sultanate of Aceh, officially the Kingdom of Aceh Darussalam ( ace, Keurajeuën Acèh Darussalam; Jawoë: كاورجاون اچيه دارالسلام), was a sultanate centered in the modern-day Indonesian province of Aceh. It was a major ...
(full style ''Sultan Berdaulat Zillullah fil-Alam'')
**
Sultanate of Asahan
** Awak Sungai, established 17th century at the split in four of
Minangkabau, in 1816 extinguished by Netherlands East Indies colonial government
**
Sultanate of Deli
**Sultanate of Indragiri
**
Sultanate of Langkat (previous style Raja)
**
Palembang Sultanate (Darussalam), also holding the higher title of
Susuhunan
**
Sultanate of Pagaruyung
**
Sultanate of Perleuak
**
Riau-Lingga Sultanate
**
Samudera Pasai Sultanate
**
Sultanate of Serdang
The Sultanate of Serdang () was an ancient Malay-Indonesian monarchy, Serdang was founded in 1723 and joined the Republic of Indonesia in 1946. The Sultanate separated from Sultanate of Deli after a dispute over the royal throne in 1720. Lik ...
**
Sultanate of Siak
The Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura, often called Sultanate of Siak (Indonesian: Kesultanan Siak Sri Inderapura; Jawi: ), was a kingdom that was located in the Siak Regency, Riau from 1722 to 1949 CE. It was founded by ''Raja Kechil,'' who wa ...
In
Malaysia:
* In
Peninsular Malaysia, where all seven of the country's present sultanates are located:
**
Sultanate of Perlis
Perlis, ( Northern Malay: ''Peghelih''), also known by its honorific title Perlis Indera Kayangan, is the smallest state in Malaysia by area and population. Located on the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia, it borders the Thai provinces o ...
**
Sultanate of Johor
**
Sultanate of Kedah
The Kedah Sultanate (كسلطانن قدح) is a Muslim dynasty located in the Malay Peninsula. It was originally an independent state, but became a British protectorate in 1909. Its monarchy was abolished after it was added to the Malayan Uni ...
**
Sultanate of Kelantan
The Sultan of Kelantan () is the constitutional head of Kelantan state in Malaysia. The executive power of the state is vested in him as the monarch of the state. The current sultan, Muhammad V of Kelantan, Muhammad V, is the 29th Sultan of Kel ...
**
Sultanate of Pahang
The Pahang Sultanate (Malay: ''Kesultanan Pahang'', Jawi: كسلطانن ڤهڠ ) also referred as the Old Pahang Sultanate, as opposed to the Modern Pahang Sultanate, was a Malay Muslim state established in the eastern Malay peninsula in 15 ...
**
Sultanate of Perak
**
Sultanate of Selangor
Sultan of Selangor (سلطان سلاڠور) is the title of the constitutional ruler of Selangor, Malaysia who is the head of state and head of the Islamic religion in Selangor. The current monarch, Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah ascended the t ...
**
Sultanate of Terengganu
* Furthermore, the ruler of
Luak Jelebu, one of the constitutive states of the
Negeri Sembilan
Negeri Sembilan (, Negeri Sembilan Malay: ''Nogoghi Sombilan'', ''Nismilan'') is a state in Malaysia which lies on the western coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It borders Selangor on the north, Pahang in the east, and Malacca and Johor to the s ...
confederation, had the style Sultan in addition to his principal title ''Undang Luak Jelebu''.
*
Sultanate of Malacca
In
Brunei:
*
Sultan of Brunei
The sultan of Brunei is the monarchical head of state of Brunei and head of government in his capacity as prime minister of Brunei. Since independence from the British in 1984, only one sultan has reigned, though the royal institution dates bac ...
, Brunei (on Borneo island)
In
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
:
*
Dali, Yunnan
Dali City () is the county-level seat of the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture in northwestern Yunnan. Dali City is administered through 12 township-level districts, two of which are also commonly referred to as Dali.
Xiaguan () formerly k ...
, capital of the short-lived
Panthay Rebellion
** Furthermore, the ''Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin'' (Leader of the Community of Muslims) of
Pingnan Guo ("Pacified South State", a major Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province) is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan.
*
In the
Philippines:
*
Sultanate of Buayan
Rajah Buayan, officially the Municipality of Rajah Buayan ( Maguindanaon: ''Ingud nu Rajah Buayan''; Iranun: ''Inged a Rajah Buayan''; tl, Bayan ng Rajah Buayan), is a municipality in the province of Maguindanao del Sur, Philippines. According t ...
*
Sultanate of Maguindanao
*
Sultanate of Sulu (Sulu, Basilan, Palawan and Tawi-Tawi islands and part of eastern Sabah on North Borneo)
In
Thailand:
*
Sultanate of Patani
*
Sultanate of Singgora
The Sultanate of Singora was a heavily fortified port city in southern Thailand and the precursor of the present-day town of Songkhla. It was founded in the early 17th century by a Persian, Dato Mogol, and flourished during the reign of his so ...
Current sultans
Sultans of sovereign states
* Sultan
Hassanal Bolkiah
Hassanal Bolkiah ibni Omar Ali Saifuddien III ( Jawi: ; born 15 July 1946) is the 29th and current Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of Brunei since 1967 and the Prime Minister of Brunei since independence from the United Kingdom in 1984. He is one ...
, Sultan and Yang di-pertuan of
Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace
* Sultan
Haitham bin Tariq, Sultan of the
Sultanate of Oman
Sultans in Federal Monarchies
* Sultan
Ibrahim Ismail, Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of
Malaysian State of Johor, The Abode of Dignity and its occupied territories
* Sultan
Sallehuddin, Sultan and Yang-di Pertuan of
Malaysian State of Kedah, the Abode of Safety
*
Sultan Muhammad V, Al-Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of
Malaysian State of Kelantan, the Abode of Bliss and its dependencies
* Al-Sultan
Abdullah Ri'ayatuddin, Sultan and Ruler of
Malaysian State of Pahang, the Abode of Tranquility
* Sultan
Nazrin Shah, Sultan, Yang di-Pertuan and the Ruler of
Malaysian State of Perak, the Abode of Grace and its dependencies
* Sultan
Sharafuddin Idris Shah, Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of
Malaysian State of Selangor, the Abode of Sincerity
* Sultan
Mizan Zainal Abidin, Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of
Malaysian State of Terengganu, the Abode of Faith
Sultan with power within Republic
* Sri Sultan
Hamengkubuwono X, Sultan and
Governor of
Indonesian Special Region of Yogyakarta
In some parts of the Middle East and North Africa, there still exist regional sultans or people who are descendants of sultans and who are styled as such. See
List of current constituent Asian monarchs and
List of current constituent African monarchs.
Princely and aristocratic titles
By the beginning of the 16th century, the title sultan was carried by both men and women of the Ottoman dynasty and was replacing other titles by which prominent members of the imperial family had been known (notably ''khatun'' for women and ''bey'' for men). This usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative.
Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as "sultan", but Ottomans themselves used "padişah" (emperor) or "hünkar" to refer to their ruler. The emperor's formal title consisted of "sultan" together with "khan" (for example, Sultan Suleiman Khan). In formal address, the sultan's children were also entitled "sultan", with imperial princes (Şehzade) carrying the title before their given name, with imperial princesses carrying it after. Example,
Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and
Mihrimah Sultan Sultan may refer to:
* Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Suleiman I) (1522–1578), Ottoman princess
* Mihrümah Sultan (daughter of Şehzade Bayezid) (1547–1602), Ottoman princess
* Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Murad III) (1579–), Ottoman princess ...
, son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent. Like imperial princesses, living mother and main consort of reigning sultan also carried the title after their given names, for example,
Hafsa Sultan
Hafsa Sultan ( ota, حفصه سلطان, "''Young lioness''"; or before – 19 March 1534), also called Ayşe Hafsa Sultan, was a concubine of Selim I and the first Valide Sultan of the Ottoman Empire as the mother of Suleiman the Magnificent. Dur ...
, Suleiman's mother and first
valide sultan, and
Hürrem Sultan, Suleiman's chief consort and first
haseki sultan. The evolving usage of this title reflected power shifts among imperial women, especially between
Sultanate of Women
The Sultanate of Women ( Turkish: ''Kadınlar saltanatı'') was a period when wives and mothers of the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire exerted extraordinary political influence.
This phenomenon took place from roughly 1528-30 to 1715, beginning in ...
, as the position of main consort eroded over the course of 17th century, the main consort lost the title "sultan", which replaced by "kadin", a title related to the earlier "khatun". Henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title "sultan".
In
Kazakh Khanate
The Kazakh Khanate ( kk, Қазақ Хандығы, , ), in eastern sources known as Ulus of the Kazakhs, Ulus of Jochi, Yurt of Urus, was a Kazakh state in Central Asia, successor of the Golden Horde existing from the 15th to 19th century, ...
a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty (a direct descendants of
Genghis Khan
''Chinggis Khaan'' ͡ʃʰiŋɡɪs xaːŋbr />Mongol script: ''Chinggis Qa(gh)an/ Chinggis Khagan''
, birth_name = Temüjin
, successor = Tolui (as regent)Ögedei Khan
, spouse =
, issue =
, house = Borjigin
, ...
) elected by clans, i.e. a kind of princes. The best of sultans was elected as
khan
Khan may refer to:
*Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan
*Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name
*Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
by people at
Kurultai
Kurultai ( Mongolian: , Хуралдай, ''Khuraldai'') or ; Kazakh: Құрылтай, ''Qūryltai''; tt-Cyrl, Корылтай, ; ba, Ҡоролтай, ; az, Qurultay; tk, Gurultaý was a political and military council of ancient Mongol a ...
. See
:ru:Казахские султаны
Military rank
In a number of post-caliphal states under
Mongol or
Turkic
Turkic may refer to:
* anything related to the country of Turkey
* Turkic languages, a language family of at least thirty-five documented languages
** Turkic alphabets (disambiguation)
** Turkish language, the most widely spoken Turkic language
* ...
rule, there was a
feudal
Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in Middle Ages, medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a wa ...
type of military hierarchy. These administrations were often decimal (mainly in larger empires), using originally princely titles such as
khan
Khan may refer to:
*Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan
*Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name
*Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
,
malik
Malik, Mallik, Melik, Malka, Malek, Maleek, Malick, Mallick, or Melekh ( phn, 𐤌𐤋𐤊; ar, ملك; he, מֶלֶךְ) is the Semitic term translating to "king", recorded in East Semitic and Arabic, and as mlk in Northwest Semitic duri ...
,
amir as mere rank denominations.
In the
Persian empire
The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, wikt:𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎶, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an History of Iran#Classical antiquity, ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Bas ...
, the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day
captain
Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police department, election precinct, e ...
in the West; socially in the fifth-rank class, styled '
Ali Jah
Zain-ud-Din Ali Khan (died 6 August 1821), better known as Ali Jah was the Nawab of Bengal and Bihar. He succeeded his father, Baber Ali Khan after his death on 28 April 1810. He was succeeded by his half-brother, Ahmad Ali Khan, after his death. ...
.
See also
*
Suratrana
*
Mansa
*
Khan (title)
Khan ''khan/qan''; tr, han; Azerbaijani: ''xan''; Ottoman: ''han''; Old Turkic: ''kan''; Chinese: 汗 ''hán''; Goguryeo: 皆 ''key''; Buyeo:
加 ''ka''; Silla: 干 ''kan''; Gaya: 旱 ''kan''; Baekje: 瑕 ''ke''; Manchu: ; Persian: خا ...
,
Ilkhan
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm, ...
and
Khakhan
*
Emir (Amir)
*
Atabeg
Atabeg, Atabek, or Atabey is a hereditary title of nobility of Turkic origin, indicating a governor of a nation or province who was subordinate to a monarch and charged with raising the crown prince. The first instance of the title's use was wit ...
*
Bey
*
Baig
*
Mirza
*
Caliph
*
Datu
*
Maharajah
*
Malik
Malik, Mallik, Melik, Malka, Malek, Maleek, Malick, Mallick, or Melekh ( phn, 𐤌𐤋𐤊; ar, ملك; he, מֶלֶךְ) is the Semitic term translating to "king", recorded in East Semitic and Arabic, and as mlk in Northwest Semitic duri ...
*
Mir (title)
*
Padishah
*
Pasha
*
Raja
*
Shah and
Shahanshah
*
Vizier
*
Zoltán
References
{{Authoritarian types of rule
Heads of state
Islamic honorifics
Military ranks
Royal titles
Noble titles
Positions of authority
Titles
Ottoman titles
Titles of national or ethnic leadership
Titles in Afghanistan
Titles in Bangladesh
Titles in Pakistan
Titles in Iran
Filipino paramount rulers
Filipino royalty