![Geographic Range of the African Spurred Tortoise (C](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Geographic_Range_of_the_African_Spurred_Tortoise_%28C._sulcata%29.png)
The African spurred tortoise (''Centrochelys sulcata''), also called the sulcata tortoise, is a
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
of
tortoise
Tortoises () are reptiles of the family Testudinidae of the order Testudines (Latin: ''tortoise''). Like other turtles, tortoises have a turtle shell, shell to protect from predation and other threats. The shell in tortoises is generally hard, ...
inhabiting the southern edge of the
Sahara
, photo = Sahara real color.jpg
, photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972
, map =
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desert in
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
. It is the largest mainland species of tortoise in the world, and the third-largest in the world. It is the last remaining species in its genus,
Centrochelys
''Centrochelys'' is a genus of tortoise. It contains one extant species and several extinct species:
* ''Centrochelys atlantica''
* ''Centrochelys burchardi''
* ''Centrochelys marocana''
* ''Centrochelys robusta''
* ''Centrochelys vulcanica''
* ...
, with the five other species in the family already extinct.
Taxonomy and etymology
The African spurred tortoise is apart of the:
* Animalia
kingdom
Kingdom commonly refers to:
* A monarchy ruled by a king or queen
* Kingdom (biology), a category in biological taxonomy
Kingdom may also refer to:
Arts and media Television
* ''Kingdom'' (British TV series), a 2007 British television drama s ...
* Bilateral
Subkingdom
In biology, a kingdom is the second highest taxonomic rank, just below domain. Kingdoms are divided into smaller groups called phyla.
Traditionally, some textbooks from the United States and Canada used a system of six kingdoms (Animalia, Plan ...
* Deuterostomia
Infrakingdom
* Chordata
Phylum
In biology, a phylum (; plural: phyla) is a level of classification or taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. Traditionally, in botany the term division has been used instead of phylum, although the International Code of Nomenclature f ...
* Vertebrata
Subphylum
In zoological nomenclature, a subphylum is a taxonomic rank below the rank of phylum.
The taxonomic rank of "subdivision (rank), subdivision" in fungi and plant taxonomy is equivalent to "subphylum" in zoological taxonomy. Some plant taxonomists ...
* Gnathostomata
Infraphylum
In zoological nomenclature, a subphylum is a taxonomic rank below the rank of phylum.
The taxonomic rank of "subdivision" in fungi and plant taxonomy is equivalent to "subphylum" in zoological taxonomy. Some plant taxonomists have also used the ...
* Tetrapoda superclass
* Reptilia
class
Class or The Class may refer to:
Common uses not otherwise categorized
* Class (biology), a taxonomic rank
* Class (knowledge representation), a collection of individuals or objects
* Class (philosophy), an analytical concept used differentl ...
* Testudines
order
Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to:
* Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood
* Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of d ...
* Crytodira
suborder
Order ( la, ordo) is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy. It is classified between family and class. In biological classification, the order is a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms and ...
* Testudinoidea
superfamily
SUPERFAMILY is a database and search platform of structural and functional annotation for all proteins and genomes. It classifies amino acid sequences into known structural domains, especially into SCOP superfamilies. Domains are functional, str ...
* Testudinidae
family
Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
* Centrochelys
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
The taxonomic species name is Centrochelys sulcata and is otherwise known as C. sulcata. Its
specific
Specific may refer to:
* Specificity (disambiguation)
* Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness
Law
* Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual
* Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the fina ...
name ''sulcata'' is from the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
word ''sulcus'' meaning "furrow" and refers to the furrows on the tortoise's scales.
At first the species was labeled as ''Testudo sulcata.'' As time has passed since the species was first classified, ''C. sulcata'' has been referred to by several different designations. There are no recognized subspecies despite there being two separate populations, one in Western Africa and the other in Eastern Africa. There are also three different, yet similar, haplotypes. One haplotype is found in and closely around Sudan, another is found in the western portion of their range, and the last haplotype is found in Senegal, Mali, and Sudan.
Range and habitat
![MontezumaSulcata](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/MontezumaSulcata.png)
The African spurred tortoise is native to the
Sahara Desert
, photo = Sahara real color.jpg
, photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972
, map =
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and the
Sahel
The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid c ...
, a transitional ecoregion of semiarid grasslands, savannas, and thorn shrublands found in the countries of
Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso (, ; , ff, 𞤄𞤵𞤪𞤳𞤭𞤲𞤢 𞤊𞤢𞤧𞤮, italic=no) is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the ...
, the
Central African Republic
The Central African Republic (CAR; ; , RCA; , or , ) is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Chad to the north, Sudan to the northeast, South Sudan to the southeast, the DR Congo to the south, the Republic of th ...
,
Chad
Chad (; ar, تشاد , ; french: Tchad, ), officially the Republic of Chad, '; ) is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic ...
,
Eritrea
Eritrea ( ; ti, ኤርትራ, Ertra, ; ar, إرتريا, ʾIritriyā), officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of Eastern Africa, with its capital and largest city at Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia ...
,
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
,
Mali
Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali ...
,
Mauritania
Mauritania (; ar, موريتانيا, ', french: Mauritanie; Berber: ''Agawej'' or ''Cengit''; Pulaar: ''Moritani''; Wolof: ''Gànnaar''; Soninke:), officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania ( ar, الجمهورية الإسلامية ...
,
Nigeria
Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
,
Senegal
Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...
,
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the A ...
,
Sudan
Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
,
Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
and possibly in
Somalia
Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
,
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
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, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
,
Benin
Benin ( , ; french: Bénin , ff, Benen), officially the Republic of Benin (french: République du Bénin), and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the north ...
, and
Cameroon
Cameroon (; french: Cameroun, ff, Kamerun), officially the Republic of Cameroon (french: République du Cameroun, links=no), is a country in west-central Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west and north; Chad to the northeast; the C ...
. It is possibly extirpated from
Djibouti
Djibouti, ar, جيبوتي ', french: link=no, Djibouti, so, Jabuuti officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Somalia to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red ...
and
Togo
Togo (), officially the Togolese Republic (french: République togolaise), is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east and Burkina Faso to the north. It extends south to the Gulf of Guinea, where its c ...
.
They are found on hills, stable dunes, and flat areas with shrubs and high grass. They also like to settle in areas with interrupted streams or rivers. In these arid regions, the tortoise excavates burrows in the ground to get to areas with higher moisture levels, and spends the hottest part of the day in these burrows.[Kaplan, Melissa. (1996)''African Spurred Tortoises''. Reptile and Amphibian Magazine, September/October 1996, pp. 32–45] This is known as aestivation
Aestivation ( la, aestas (summer); also spelled estivation in American English) is a state of animal dormancy, similar to hibernation, although taking place in the summer rather than the winter. Aestivation is characterized by inactivity and ...
. In the wild, they may burrow very deep; up to 15 m deep and 30 m long. Plants such as grasses and succulents grow around their burrows if kept moist and in nature they continue to grow for the tortoise to eat if the soil is replenished with its feces. Sulcata tortoises found in the Sudanese part of their range may reach significantly greater size at maturity than those found in other regions.
Size and lifespan
''C. sulcata'' is the largest species of tortoise in Africa and is also third-largest species of tortoise in the world after the Galapagos tortoise and Aldabra giant tortoise
The Aldabra giant tortoise (''Aldabrachelys gigantea'') is a species of tortoise in the family Testudinidae. The species is endemic to the islands of the Aldabra Atoll in the Seychelles. It is one of the largest tortoises in the world.Pritchar ...
. The species is the largest of the mainland tortoises. Males have an average mass of about 81 kg, but some males have been recorded at over 100 kg with one weighing more than 120 kg. They have a straight carapace length of around 86.0 cm in males. Females have a straight carapace length of about 57.8 cm. Males of a curved carapace length of about 101.0 cm and females have approximately 67.0 cm of curved carapace length. Despite being the largest tortoise in Africa, hatchlings measure about 44 millimeters and weigh around 40 grams. They grow very quickly, reaching 6–10 in (15–25 cm) within the first few years of their lives. The tortoises grow faster when there is more rainfall and slower when there is less. They reach sexual maturity after 10 to 15 years. In captivity their life span is around 54 years. In the wild their lifespan is unknown but is believed to exceed 75 years. The tortoise has no known predators when they are hatchlings or adults. In fact it is believed that they are nearly immune to predators when their weight exceeds 30kg. On the other hand tortoise eggs are sought after by many predators such as numerous species of lizards and potentially mongooses. In the wild the leading cause of death is being unable to right themselves around after they have been flipped onto their backs.
Diet
Sulcata tortoises are mostly herbivores
A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpart ...
. Primarily, their diets consist of many types of grasses, plants (especially succulent plants), and hay. Their overall diet should be high in fiber and very low in protein. Too much protein will lead to the tortoise growing too fast, which can result in metabolic bone disease which is uneven growth. Flowers and other plants including cactus pads can be consumed. In the wild, they have been observed to also eat plants and algae off the surface of the water. African spurred tortoises are also capable of eating various vegetables such as endive
Endive () is a leaf vegetable belonging to the genus ''Cichorium'', which includes several similar bitter-leafed vegetables. Species include '' Cichorium endivia'' (also called endive), ''Cichorium pumilum'' (also called wild endive), and ''Cich ...
, dandelion greens, and dark leafy greens. Despite being herbivores, they will occasionally eat the carcasses of dead animals. They mostly eat dead goats and zebras that have been pushed downstream during the wet season on the rivers and creeks the tortoises settle next to. If a human settlement is nearby they will also feed on trash.
Breeding
Male selection
Copulation takes place right after the rainy season, during the months from September through November with breeding actions occur in the morning. Male C. ''sulcata'' are extremely territorial. Males combat each other for breeding rights with the females and are vocal during copulation. Larger males tend to always win sexual combat.
Female Nesting
Sixty days after mating, the female begins to roam looking for suitable nesting sites. For five to fifteen days, four or five nests may be excavated before she selects the perfect location in which the eggs will be laid. Females tend to lay around two to three clutches of eggs with each clutch containing fourteen to forty eggs.
Loose soil is kicked out of the depression, and the female may frequently urinate into the depression. Once it reaches about two feet (60 cm) in diameter and 3–6 in (7–14 cm) deep, a further depression, measuring some eight inches (20 cm) across and in depth, will be dug out towards the back of the original depression. The work of digging the nest may take up to five hours; the speed with which it is dug seems to be dependent upon the relative hardness of the ground. It usually takes place when the ambient air temperature is at least 78°F (27°C). Once the nest is dug, the female begins to lay an egg every three minutes. Clutches may contain 15–30 or more eggs. After the eggs are laid, the female fills in the nest, taking an hour or more to fully cover them all. Incubation should be 86 to 88 °F, and will take from 90 to 120 days.
Conservation status and efforts
Status
C. sulcata is currently ranked as an endangered species. Studies suggest that African spurred tortoises exist in approximately 16.7% of the area where they had previously been found. These studies also show an average of 1-5 tortoises per site canvassed which indicates a rapid decline of the species. The species faces threats from livestock as they have to compete for resources. The main source of resource competition African spurred tortoises face is from cattle which also graze on grass. The effects of competition for grazing land is compounded by wildfires which can destroy large portions of grass land which kills and rescues the resources available to C ''sulcata''. They also face threats from the pet trade as they are over harvested from their natural environment. Approximately 9000 tortoises are taken from the wild for the pet trade. Other threats that the species face are habitat loss due to climate change and predators which hunt the tortoises or their eggs.
Efforts
The main method of conservation has been reintroduction programs. These sorts of reintroduction programs have been implemented in Ferlo, and Senegal. These programs have seen tortoise survival rates of about 80%. This means that the tortoises are able to easily to adapt back into their native savanna environments from domestic environment. They're also captive colonies in several countries. Most of these reintroduction programs and captive colonies can be found in protected national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. There are hopes to expand reintroduction programs by involving tortoise owners since there are more African spurred tortoises living in captivity than in the wild. The goal would be to establish a breeding programs with the owners where all hatchlings would be reintroduced.
Life in captivity
Behavior
African spurred tortoises are passive and docile pets. They are almost never aggressive and barely ever show territorial behavior. This docile behavior is complimented by their slow speed and silence. Despite their docile attitude, the tortoise should not be handled often as handling will cause stress. Stress can lead to health problems and premature death. They are also very curious, and can end up stuck on their backs, needing help getting flipped back over. African Spurred Tortoises have a lifespan of around 70 years, which means that they are a long term commitment.
Requirements
The ideal enclosure for the African spurred tortoise is an outdoor pen where they will be able to construct a burrow. A fence of around two feet is recommended with some parts of the fence being extended underground. They prefer high temperatures and thrive in temperatures as high as 100 degrees Fahrenheit when they have a borrow to go into to cool off. When in captivity they should also have access to heating systems to keep the temperature of an enclosure above 60 degrees Fahrenheit for when the temperature drops during the night. If the tortoise is being kept inside they need access to artificial means of sunlight. The enclosure should also be kept somewhat humid. Humidity should be kept around 40-50 percent as any higher than that can lead to repository issues. These tend to be fungal infections, but shell rot is also common.
They require high fiber diets (grasses and hays) as many "wet" vegetables can cause health problems in large quantities. Red leaf lettuce, prickly pear cactus pads, hibiscus leaves, hay from various grasses and dandelions are some of the better foods to make up the bulk of their diet. They will attempt to eat most types of plants eventually and some common garden plants can be very toxic to them, such as azaleas. They will eat such things as caterpillars and snails if given the opportunity, but this also should be a very small portion of their diet. Calcium should also be another small portion of their diet to help with shell growth. The tortoises should also avoid proteins and consume fruits very sparsely. As the tortoises get older and their jaws stronger, it is recommended to allow them to eat hays such as Orchard and Timothy Hay. Certain vegetables can lead to serious medical issues. Kale, brussel sprouts, and broccoli can be added to their diet rarely, but are known to cause hypothyroidism. Parsley, collard greens, and romaine lettuce
Romaine or cos lettuce (''Lactuca sativa'' L. var. ''longifolia'') is a variety of lettuce that grows in a tall head of sturdy dark green leaves with firm ribs down their centers. Unlike most lettuces, it is tolerant of heat. In North America, ...
should be excluded from their diets entirely, as they are too high in calcium oxalate.
References
External links
*ARKive
images and movies of the African spurred tortoise ''(Geochelone sulcata)''
{{Taxonbar, from=Q301016
Testudinidae
Turtles of Africa
Reptiles described in 1779
Taxa named by John Frederick Miller
Articles containing video clips