Shuklaphanta National Park is a

national park A national park is a natural park in use for conservation purposes, created and protected by national governments. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individua ...

in the

Terai , image =Terai nepal.jpg , image_size = , image_alt = , caption =Aerial view of Terai plains near Biratnagar, Nepal , map = , map_size = , map_alt = , map_caption = , biogeographic_realm = Indomalayan realm , global200 = Terai-Duar savanna ...

of the

Far-Western Region, Nepal The Far-Western Development Region (Nepali: सुदुर पश्चिमाञ्चल विकास क्षेत्र, ''Sudur Pashchimānchal Bikās Kshetra'') was one of Nepal's five development regions. It was located at the w ...

, covering of open

grassland A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush ( Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur natur ...

s, forests, riverbeds and tropical

wetland A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently (for years or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The ...

s at an elevation of . It is bounded by the

Mahakali river The Sharda River, also called Kali River and Mahakali River, originates at Kalapani in the Himalayas at an elevation of in the Pithoragarh district in Uttarakhand, India. It flows along Nepal's western border with India and has a basin area ...

in the west and south. A small part extends north of the

Mahendra Highway Mahendra Highway (), also called East-West Highway () runs across the Terai geographical region of Nepal, from Mechinagar in the east to Bhim Datta in the west, cutting across the entire width of the country. It is the longest highway in Nepal ...

to create a

wildlife corridor A wildlife corridor, habitat corridor, or green corridor is an area of habitat (ecology), habitat connecting wildlife populations separated by human activities or structures (such as roads, development, or logging). This allows an exchange of i ...

for seasonal migration of wildlife into the

Sivalik Hills The Sivalik Hills, also known as the Shivalik Hills and Churia Hills, are a mountain range of the outer Himalayas that stretches over about from the Indus River eastwards close to the Brahmaputra River, spanning the northern parts of the Indian ...

. It was gazetted in 1976 as ''Royal Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve'' and was enlarged to its presence size in the late 1980s. A

buffer zone A buffer zone is a neutral zonal area that lies between two or more bodies of land, usually pertaining to countries. Depending on the type of buffer zone, it may serve to separate regions or conjoin them. Common types of buffer zones are demil ...

of was added in 2004. It receives a mean annual rainfall of and harbours 700

flora Flora (: floras or florae) is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring (indigenous (ecology), indigenous) native plant, native plants. The corresponding term for animals is ''fauna'', and for f ...

l, 456 bird, 56 reptile and 15 amphibian species.

History

The name ''Suklaphanta'' was derived from one of the

s called inside the protected area. The main grassland called ''Sukla Phanta'' is the largest patch of continuous grassland in Nepal covering an area of about . The area was a favourite hunting ground for Nepal's ruling class and was declared a ''Royal Hunting Reserve'' in 1969. In 1973, the area was

gazette A gazette is an official journal, a newspaper of record, or simply a newspaper. In English and French speaking countries, newspaper publishers have applied the name ''Gazette'' since the 17th century; today, numerous weekly and daily newspaper ...

d as ''Royal Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve'', initially comprising , and extended to its present size in the late 1980s. A

of was added in May 2004. In 2017, the status of the protected area was changed to a national park.

Geography

Shuklaphanta National Park covers of open grasslands, forests, riverbeds and tropical wetlands at an elevation of . It is bounded by the

in the west, the

in the north and the Syali river in the east. A

in the south connects it to

Pilibhit Tiger Reserve Pilibhit Tiger Reserve is located in Pilibhit district of Uttar Pradesh and was notified as a tiger reserve in 2014. It forms part of the Terai Arc Landscape in the upper Gangetic Plain along the India-Nepal border. The habitat is characterize ...

in India. Located in the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands, it is also included in the

Terai Arc Landscape Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) is composed of 14 Indian and Nepalese trans-border protected ecosystems of the Terai (Sanskrit for "lowlands") and nearby foothills of the Himalayas. and encompassing 14 protected areas of Nepal and India. The area spans ...

. The soils in the

alluvial Alluvium (from Latin ''alluvius'', from ''alluere'' 'to wash against') is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed, on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Al ...

floodplain A floodplain or flood plain or bottomlands is an area of land adjacent to a river which stretches from the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls, and which experiences flooding during periods of high discharge.Goudi ...

vary from sandy

loam Loam (in geology and soil science) is soil composed mostly of sand ( particle size > ), silt (particle size > ), and a smaller amount of clay (particle size < ). By weight, its mineral composition is about 40–40–20% concentration of sand–si ...

clay Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolin, Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4). Clays develop plasticity when wet, due to a molecular film of water surrounding the clay part ...

and are slightly

alkali In chemistry, an alkali (; from ar, القلوي, al-qaly, lit=ashes of the saltwort) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. An alkali can also be defined as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of ...

ne.

Climate

The climate of the region is subtropical

monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal osci ...

al with a mean annual rainfall of occurring from June to September and peaking in August. The winter months of December and January are fairly cold with daytime temperatures of and occasional frost. The temperature rises from February onward up to in March and reaching by end of April. Humidity increases when the first pre-monsoon rains arrive in the area in May.

Flora

Some 700 species of flora are estimated in the park including 553

vascular plants Vascular plants (), also called tracheophytes () or collectively Tracheophyta (), form a large group of land plants ( accepted known species) that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They a ...

, 18

pteridophytes A pteridophyte is a vascular plant (with xylem and phloem) that disperses spores. Because pteridophytes produce neither flowers nor seeds, they are sometimes referred to as " cryptogams", meaning that their means of reproduction is hidden. ...

, 410 dicots and 125

monocots Monocotyledons (), commonly referred to as monocots, ( Lilianae ''sensu'' Chase & Reveal) are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms), the seeds of which typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. They constitute one of ...

. The main grass species in the grasslands are ''

Imperata cylindrica ''Imperata cylindrica'' (commonly known as cogongrass or kunai grass ) is a species of perennial rhizomatous grass native to tropical and subtropical Asia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia, Africa, and southern Europe. It has also been introduc ...

'' and ''

Heteropogon contortus ''Heteropogon contortus'' is a tropical, perennial tussock grass with a native distribution encompassing Southern Africa, southern Asia, Northern Australia, Oceania, and southwestern North America. The species has also become a naturalised weed ...

''. ''

Phragmites ''Phragmites'' () is a genus of four species of large perennial reed grasses found in wetlands throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world. Taxonomy The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, maintained by Kew Garden in Lon ...

karka'' and ''

Saccharum spontaneum ''Saccharum spontaneum'' (wild sugarcane, Kans grass) is a grass native to the Indian Subcontinent. It is a perennial grass, growing up to three meters in height, with spreading rhizomatous roots. In the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands, a l ...

'' grow in the marshes surrounding the seven small lakes. ''

Acacia catechu ''Senegalia catechu'' is a deciduous, thorny tree which grows up to in height. The plant is called ''khair''
in H ...

'' and ''

Dalbergia sissoo ''Dalbergia sissoo'', known commonly as North Indian rosewood or ''shisham'', is a fast-growing, hardy, deciduous rosewood tree native to the Indian subcontinent and southern Iran. ''D. sissoo'' is a large, crooked tree with long, leathery lea ...

'' grow alongside rivers, and sal (''

Shorea robusta ''Shorea robusta'', the sal tree, sāla, shala, sakhua, or sarai, is a species of tree in the family Dipterocarpaceae. The tree is native to India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Tibet and across the Himalayan regions . Evolution Fossil evidence from l ...

'') is the dominant tree species in the forest. Grassland encroachment by tree and shrub saplings are major threats to the long-term existence of the main grasslands.

Fauna

The extensive open grasslands and wetlands around the lakes of the park provide habitat for a wide range of fauna.

Mammals

The congregation of

barasingha The barasingha (''Rucervus duvaucelii''), also known as the swamp deer, is a deer species distributed in the Indian subcontinent. Populations in northern and central India are fragmented, and two isolated populations occur in southwestern Nepal. ...

(''Rucervus duvaucelii'') in the park's grasslands is the largest known population in the world, with 1674 individuals estimated in 2007. Barasingha and

Indian hog deer The Indian hog deer (''Axis porcinus'') is a small deer native to the Indo-Gangetic Plain in Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bangladesh to mainland Southeast Asia. It also occurs in western Thailand, and is possibly extirpated from China (in so ...

(''Axis porcinus'') herds live mainly in grasslands, whereas

chital The chital or cheetal (''Axis axis''; ), also known as the spotted deer, chital deer, and axis deer, is a deer species native to the Indian subcontinent. It was first described and given a binomial name by German naturalist Johann Christian Po ...

(''A. axis'') herds use grasslands and forest patches; the

Indian muntjac The Indian muntjac or the common muntjac (''Muntiacus muntjak''), also called the southern red muntjac and barking deer, is a deer species native to South and Southeast Asia. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. In popular local l ...

(''Muntiacus muntjak'') frequents forests close to water bodies, and the

nilgai The nilgai (''Boselaphus tragocamelus'') (, literally meaning "blue cow") is the largest Asian antelope and is ubiquitous across the northern Indian subcontinent. It is the sole member of the genus ''Boselaphus'' and was described by Peter ...

(''Boselaphus tragocamelus'') uses foremost forest edge areas and semi-open habitats. During

camera trap A camera trap is a camera that is automatically triggered by a change in some activity in its vicinity, like presence of an animal or a human being. It is typically equipped with a motion sensor – usually a passive infrared (PIR) senso ...

ping surveys carried out in three cold seasons, 11

tiger The tiger (''Panthera tigris'') is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus '' Panthera''. It is most recognisable for its dark vertical stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on ...

s (''Panthera tigris'') and nine

leopard The leopard (''Panthera pardus'') is one of the five extant species in the genus '' Panthera'', a member of the cat family, Felidae. It occurs in a wide range in sub-Saharan Africa, in some parts of Western and Central Asia, Southern Russia ...

s (''P. pardus'') were identified in the southern part of the national park. In spring 2016, a

rusty-spotted cat The rusty-spotted cat (''Prionailurus rubiginosus'') is one of the cat family's smallest members, of which historical records are known only from India and Sri Lanka. In 2012, it was also recorded in the western Terai of Nepal. Since 2016, the g ...

(''Prionailurus rubiginosus'') was photographed by a camera-trap for the first time in the national park. The

fishing cat The fishing cat (''Prionailurus viverrinus'') is a medium-sized wild cat of South and Southeast Asia. Since 2016, it is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Fishing cat populations are threatened by destruction of wetlands and have declin ...

(''Prionailurus viverrinus'') was recorded mainly in the wetlands. The smooth-coated otter (''Lutrogale perspicillata'') is present in the many streams and around lakes.

Asian palm civet The Asian palm civet (''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus''), also called common palm civet, toddy cat and musang, is a viverrid native to South and Southeast Asia. Since 2008, it is IUCN Red Listed as Least Concern as it accommodates to a broad ran ...

(''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus''),

small Indian civet The small Indian civet (''Viverricula indica'') is a civet native to South and Southeast Asia. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List because of its widespread distribution, widespread habitat use and healthy populations living in ag ...

(''Viverricula indica''),

honey badger The honey badger (''Mellivora capensis''), also known as the ratel ( or ), is a mammal widely distributed in Africa, Southwest Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. Because of its wide range and occurrence in a variety of habitats, it is liste ...

(''Mellivora capensis'') and

Bengal fox The Bengal fox (''Vulpes bengalensis''), also known as the Indian fox, is a fox endemic to the Indian subcontinent from the Himalayan foothills and Terai of Nepal through southern India, and from southern and eastern Pakistan to eastern India and ...

(''Vulpes bengalensis'') were recorded in the sal forest.

Indian rhinoceros } The Indian rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros unicornis''), also called the Indian rhino, greater one-horned rhinoceros or great Indian rhinoceros, is a rhinoceros species native to the Indian subcontinent. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red Lis ...

(''Rhinoceros unicornis'') were translocated from

Chitwan National Park , iucn_category = II , location = Central Terai of Nepal , established = 1973 , nearest_city = Bharatpur , map = Nepal Bagmati Province#Nepal#India#South Asia , relief = 1 , label = Chitwan National Park , label_position = top , coordina ...

to establish a third viable population in the country. Since 2015, the population in Shuklaphanta National Park has increased from eight to 17 individuals as of March 2021. In 2011, the

Asian elephant The Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus''), also known as the Asiatic elephant, is the only living species of the genus '' Elephas'' and is distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, from India in the west, Nepal in ...

(''Elephas maximus'') was thought to migrate seasonally from Uttar Pradesh through the park and beyond, with 3–5 individuals staying in far-western Nepal. The park and its buffer zone provide only about suitable elephant habitat with sufficient natural vegetation cover close to water sources. The population of the

hispid hare The hispid hare (''Caprolagus hispidus''), also called Assam rabbit and bristly rabbit, is a leporid native to South Asia, whose historic range extended along the southern foothills of the Himalayas. Today, its habitat is highly fragmented with a ...

(''Caprolagus hispidus'') may be of international significance. The

population density Population density (in agriculture: Stock (disambiguation), standing stock or plant density) is a measurement of population per unit land area. It is mostly applied to humans, but sometimes to other living organisms too. It is a key geographical ...

was estimated at and 219 ± 40 individuals within of grasslands in 2012. The

Indian crested porcupine The Indian crested porcupine (''Hystrix indica'') is a hystricomorph rodent species native to southern Asia and the Middle East. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. It belongs to the Old World porcupine family, Hystricidae. Des ...

(''Hystrix indica'') was recorded mainly in grasslands and exhibited a

nocturnal Nocturnality is an ethology, animal behavior characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnality, diurnal meaning the opposite. Nocturnal creatures generally have ...

activity pattern in winter. The

Malayan porcupine The Malayan porcupine or Himalayan porcupine (''Hystrix brachyura'') is a species of rodent in the family Hystricidae. Three subspecies are extant in South and Southeast Asia. Geographical distribution The Malayan porcupine ranges from Nepal th ...

(''H. brachyura'') was recorded in the sal forest.

Birds

The singing bush lark (''Mirafra cantillans'') and

Finn's weaver Finn's weaver (''Ploceus megarhynchus''), also known as Finn's baya and yellow weaver is a weaver bird species native to the Ganges and Brahmaputra valleys in India and Nepal. Two subspecies are known; the nominate subspecies occurs in the Ku ...

(''Ploceus megarhynchus'') were first observed in the park's grasslands in May 1996. In 2001, the national park supported the largest population of the

Bengal florican The Bengal florican (''Houbaropsis bengalensis''), also called the Bengal bustard, is a bustard species native to the Indian subcontinent, Cambodia, and Vietnam. It is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List because fewer than 1,0 ...

(''Houbaropsis bengalensis'') in Nepal with 20–28 individuals estimated to live in the grasslands. By 2009, a total of 423 bird species had been recorded in the protected area. It is the western limit of several resident birds including swamp francolin (''Ortygornis gularis''),

Jerdon's bush chat Jerdon's bush chat (''Saxicola jerdoni'') is a species of bird in the family Muscicapidae. The common name commemorates the surgeon-naturalist Thomas C. Jerdon. Distribution The Jerdon's bush chat has an extremely large range and is native to ...

(''Saxicola jerdoni''), Indian grassbird (''Graminicola bengalensis''), chestnut-capped babbler (''Timalia pileata'') and Jerdon's babbler (''Chrysomma altirostre''), and the north-western limit of the yellow-eyed babbler (''Chrysomma sinense''). Forest birds include

Oriental pied hornbill The oriental pied hornbill (''Anthracoceros albirostris'') is an Indo-Malayan pied hornbill, a large canopy-dwelling bird belonging to the family Bucerotidae. Two other common names for this species are Sunda pied hornbill (''convexus'') and Mala ...

(''Anthracoceros albirostris''),

rufous-bellied eagle The rufous-bellied eagle or rufous-bellied hawk-eagle (''Lophotriorchis kienerii'') is a bird of prey in the family Accipitridae that is found in the forested regions of tropical Asia. Relatively small for eagles and contrastingly patterned like ...

(''Lophotriorchis kienerii''),

spot-bellied eagle owl The spot-bellied eagle-owl (''Bubo nipalensis''), also known as the forest eagle-owl is a large bird of prey with a formidable appearance. It is a forest-inhabiting species found in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. This species is con ...

(''Bubo nipalensis'') and dusky eagle owl (''B. coromandus''). The forests are also important for great slaty woodpecker (''Mulleripicus pulverulentus'') and

white-naped woodpecker The white-naped woodpecker (''Chrysocolaptes festivus'') is woodpecker which is a widespread but a scarce breeder in the Indian Subcontinent. It is associated with open forest and scrub with some trees. It nests in a tree hole, laying one or tw ...

(''Chrysocolaptes festivus''). The

white-rumped vulture The white-rumped vulture (''Gyps bengalensis'') is an Old World vulture native to South and Southeast Asia. It has been listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2000, as the population severely declined. White-rumped vultures d ...

(''Gyps bengalensis''),

slender-billed vulture The slender-billed vulture (''Gyps tenuirostris'') is an Old World vulture species native to sub-Himalayan regions and Southeast Asia. It is Critically Endangered since 2002 as the population on the Indian subcontinent has declined rapidly. A ...

(''G. tenuirostris''),

lesser adjutant The lesser adjutant (''Leptoptilos javanicus'') is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. Like other members of its genus, it has a bare neck and head. It is however more closely associated with wetland habitats where it is solitary ...

(''Leptoptilos javanicus''),

grey-headed fish eagle The grey-headed fish eagle (''Haliaeetus ichthyaetus'') is a fish-eating bird of prey from South East Asia.Robson, C. (2000). ''A Field Guide to the Birds of South-East Asia''. UK: New Holland Publishers. It is a large stocky raptor with adults h ...

(''Haliaeetus ichthyaetus'') and

Oriental darter The Oriental darter (''Anhinga melanogaster'') is a water bird of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. It has a long and slender neck with a straight, pointed bill and, like the cormorant, it hunts for fish while its body is submerged in water ...

(''Anhinga melanogaster'') are breeding residents. Sarus crane (''Antigone antigone''),

painted stork The painted stork (''Mycteria leucocephala'') is a large wader in the stork family. It is found in the wetlands of the plains of tropical Asia south of the Himalayas in the Indian Subcontinent and extending into Southeast Asia. Their distinctiv ...

(''Mycteria leucocephala'') and

bristled grassbird The bristled grassbird (''Schoenicola striatus'') is a small passerine bird in the genus ''Schoenicola''. Also known as the bristled grass warbler, this species is endemic to the Indian subcontinent, where it is patchily distributed in Bangladesh ...

(''Schoenicola striatus'') are summer visitors.

Greater racquet-tailed drongo The greater racket-tailed drongo (''Dicrurus paradiseus'') is a medium-sized Asian bird which is distinctive in having elongated outer tail feathers with webbing restricted to the tips. They are placed along with other drongos in the family ...

(''Dicrurus paradiseus''),

white-capped redstart The white-capped redstart or white-capped water redstart (''Phoenicurus leucocephalus'') is a passerine bird of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae native to the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia, and to certain regions of Central A ...

(''Phoenicurus leucocephalus''), rusty-tailed flycatcher (''Ficedula ruficauda'') and rufous-gorgeted flycatcher (''F. strophiata'') are uncommon winter visitors. The

white-throated bush chat The white-throated bush chat (''Saxicola insignis''), also known as Hodgson's bushchat, is an Old World flycatcher in the genus '' Saxicola''. It is IUCN Red Listed as Vulnerable by BirdLife International. In 2001, the global population has been ...

(''Saxicola insignis'') is a winter visitor. The

black-necked stork The black-necked stork (''Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus'') is a tall long-necked wading bird in the stork family. It is a resident species across the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia with a disjunct population in Australia. It lives in wetl ...

(''Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus'') and

red-headed vulture The red-headed vulture (''Sarcogyps calvus''), also known as the Asian king vulture, Indian black vulture or Pondicherry vulture, is an Old World vulture mainly found in the Indian subcontinent, with small disjunct populations in some parts of So ...

(''Sarcogyps calvus'') visit the park occasionally. A total of 450 bird species had been recorded by mid 2019. Between November 2019 and spring 2020, six additional species were observed comprising

little forktail The little forktail (''Enicurus scouleri'') is a species of bird in the family Muscicapidae. The specific name commemorates Dr John Scouler of Glasgow. Description The sexes are alike, with black and white plumage. Black above, with white for ...

(''Enicurus scouleri''),

wood snipe The wood snipe (''Gallinago nemoricola'') is a species of snipe which breeds in the Himalayas of northern India, Nepal, Bhutan and southern China. In winter, it occurs at lower altitudes in the Himalayas, as a regular visitor in small numbers to ...

(''Gallinago nemoricola''),

great barbet The great barbet (''Psilopogon virens'') is an Asian barbet native to the Indian sub-continent and Southeast Asia, where it inhabits foremost forests up to altitude. It has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 2004 because of ...

(''Psilopogon virens''),

Laggar falcon The laggar falcon (''Falco jugger''), also known as the lugger falcon or jugger (from Hindi जग्गर — jaggar, “falcon”) is a mid-sized bird of prey which occurs in the Indian subcontinent from extreme southeastern Iran, southeaste ...

(''Falco jugger''),

Indian nuthatch The Indian nuthatch (''Sitta castanea'') is a species of bird in the family Sittidae. It is found in Bangladesh, India and Nepal. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, and su ...

(''Sitta castanea'') and black-breasted thrush (''Turdus dissimilis'').

Reptiles

As of September 2019, 56 reptile species have been recorded in Shuklaphanta National Park. The

mugger crocodile The mugger crocodile (''Crocodylus palustris'') is a medium-sized broad-snouted crocodile, also known as mugger and marsh crocodile. It is native to freshwater habitats from southern Iran to the Indian subcontinent, where it inhabits marshes, l ...

(''Crocodylus palustris'') was observed at Rani Tal, one of the natural lakes in the east of the national park. Both

Bengal monitor The Bengal monitor (''Varanus bengalensis''), also called the common Indian monitor, is a monitor lizard distributed widely in the Indian Subcontinent, as well as parts of Southeast Asia and West Asia. This large lizard is mainly a terrestrial a ...

(''Varanus bengalensis'') and yellow monitor (''V. flavescens'') have frequently been observed in the national park's buffer zone.

Venomous snake Venomous snakes are species of the suborder Serpentes that are capable of producing venom, which they use for killing prey, for defense, and to assist with digestion of their prey. The venom is typically delivered by injection using hollow or ...

s are represented by king cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah''),

Indian cobra The Indian cobra (''Naja naja''), also known as the spectacled cobra, Asian cobra, or binocellate cobra, is a species of cobra found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bhutan, and a member of the "big four" species tha ...

(''Naja naja'') and

monocled cobra The monocled cobra (''Naja kaouthia''), also called monocellate cobra and Indian spitting cobra, is a venomous cobra species widespread across South and Southeast Asia and listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Taxonomy The scientific ...

(''N. kaouthia''),

Russell's viper Russell's viper (''Daboia russelii''), is a venomous snake in the family Viperidae native to the Indian subcontinent and one of the big four snakes in India. It was described in 1797 by George Shaw and Frederick Polydore Nodder, and named af ...

(''Daboia russelii''),

common krait The common krait (''Bungarus caeruleus''), also known as Bengal krait, is a species of highly venomous elapid snake of the genus '' Bungarus'' native to the Indian subcontinent. It is a member of the "Big Four" species that inflict the most sna ...

(''Bungarus caeruleus'') and

banded krait The banded krait (''Bungarus fasciatus'') is a species of elapid snake found on the Indian Subcontinent, in Southeast Asia, and in southern China. It is the largest species of krait, with a maximum length up to . Although the banded krait is ven ...

(''B. fasciatus''). Non-venomous snakes comprise

Burmese python The Burmese python (''Python bivittatus'') is one of the largest species of snakes. It is native to a large area of Southeast Asia and is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Until 2009, it was considered a subspecies of the Indian python ...

(''Python bivittatus''), Oriental ratsnake (''

Ptyas mucosa ''Ptyas mucosa'', commonly known as the oriental ratsnake, Indian rat snake, ''darash'' or ''dhaman'', is a common non-venomous species of colubrid snake found in parts of South and Southeast Asia. Dhamans are large snakes. Typical mature total ...

''), ''

Ahaetulla laudankia ''Ahaetulla laudankia'', known as the Laudankia vine snake, is a species of snake in the family Colubridae. It is endemic to India and while being a rare species, it has a relatively large range, extending from the Eastern Ghats through Centra ...

'', ''

Ahaetulla nasuta ''Ahaetulla nasuta'', also known as Sri Lankan green vine snake and long-nosed whip snake, is a venomous, slender green tree snake endemic to Sri Lanka. Distribution Due to longstanding confusion over the taxonomy of ''A. nasuta'', the species ...

'', Forsten's cat snake (''

Boiga forsteni ''Boiga forsteni'', also known as Forsten's cat snake, is a species of mildly venomous rear-fanged colubrid endemic to South Asia. Geographic range ''Boiga forstenii'' is found in Nepal, Sri Lanka, and India (Sikkim, West Bengal, Maharashtra, G ...

'') and common cat snake ( ''B. trigonata''), ''

Chrysopelea ornata :''Common names: golden tree snake,Daniels,J. C. (2002) The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians, BNHS & Oxford University Press, Mumbai, pp 106–107.Ecology Asia - Snakes of Southeast Asia: page on Golden Tree Snake'Encyclopædia Britannica o ...

'', trinket snake (''Coelognathus helena'') and radiated ratsnake (''C. radiatus''), bronzeback (''

Dendrelaphis tristis ''Dendrelaphis tristis'' (Common bronzeback or Daudin's bronzeback) is a species of tree-snake found in Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, and Bhutan. Description ''Dendrelaphis tristis'' is a long, slender snake with a poi ...

''), rainbow water snake (''Enhydris enhydris'') and

Siebold's water snake Siebold's water snake (''Ferania sieboldii''), also known commonly as Siebold's mud snake and Siebold's smooth water snake, is a species of mildly venomous, rear-fanged snake in the family Homalopsidae. The species is endemic to Asia. Etymology ...

(''Ferania sieboldii''), red sand boa (''

Eryx johnii ''Eryx johnii'' is a species of nonvenomous snake in the subfamily Erycinae of the family Boidae. The species is endemic to Iran, Pakistan, and India. There are no subspecies which are recognized as being valid. Common names include: Ind ...

'') and rough-scaled sand boa (''E. conicus''), brahminy blind snake (''

Indotyphlops braminus ''Indotyphlops braminus'', commonly known as the brahminy blind snake and other names, is a non-venomous blind snake species found mostly in Africa and Asia, but has been introduced in many other parts of the world. They are completely fossoria ...

''), Indian wolf snake (''

Lycodon aulicus ''Lycodon aulicus'', commonly known as the Indian wolf snake, is a species of nonvenomous snake found in South Asia and Southeast Asia. Early naturalists have suggested its resemblance to the venomous common krait as an instance of Batesian mim ...

''), twin-spotted wolf snake ('' L. jara'') and barred wolf snake ('' L. striatus''), banded kukri snake (''Oligodon arnensis'') and coral kukri snake ('' O. kheriensis''), ''

Psammophis condanarus ''Psammophis condanarus'', the sand snake, is a species of snake found in dry low country zones of Indian peninsula (except the far south), Pakistan and Nepal. It is a fast-moving, diurnal, terrestrial species and lives in stony outcrops and bo ...

'', ''

Sibynophis sagittarius ''Sibynophis sagittarius'', commonly known as Cantor's black-headed snake after Theodore Cantor,Das, Indraneil. 2002. ''A Photographic Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of India''. Ralph Curtis Books. Sanibel Island, Florida. 144 pp. (''Sibynop ...

'',

buff striped keelback The buff striped keelback (''Amphiesma stolatum'') is a species of nonvenomous colubrid snake found across Asia. It is a typically nonaggressive snake that feeds on frogs and toads. It belongs to the subfamily Natricinae, and is closely related ...

(''Amphiesma stolatum'') and checkered keelback (''Fowlea piscator'').

Testudines Turtles are an order of reptiles known as Testudines, characterized by a special shell developed mainly from their ribs. Modern turtles are divided into two major groups, the Pleurodira (side necked turtles) and Cryptodira (hidden necked ...

comprise

tricarinate hill turtle The tricarinate hill turtle or three-keeled land turtle (''Melanochelys tricarinata'') is a species of turtle found in northeastern India, Bangladesh, and Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of ...

(''Melanochelys tricarinata''),

Indian black turtle The Indian black turtle (''Melanochelys trijuga'') or Indian pond terrapin is a species of medium-sized freshwater turtle found in South Asia. Description Despite its name, the color of its upper shell or carapace can vary from reddish to dark ...

(''M. trijuga''), Indian roofed turtle (''Pangshura tecta''), Indian tent turtle (''Pangshura tentoria''),

elongated tortoise The elongated tortoise (''Indotestudo elongata'') is a species of tortoise found in Southeast Asia and parts of South Asia. Description Shell considerably depressed, more than twice as long as deep, with flat vertebral region; anterior and post ...

(''Indotestudo elongata'') and

Indian narrow-headed softshell turtle The Indian narrow-headed softshell turtle (''Chitra indica''), also known as the small-headed softshell turtle or the Indo-Gangetic softshell turtle, is an endangered species of softshell turtle native to waterways and rivers of the Indian subc ...

(''Chitra indica'').

Amphibians

Asian common toad (''

Duttaphrynus melanostictus ''Duttaphrynus melanostictus'' is commonly called Asian common toad, Asian black-spined toad, Asian toad, black-spectacled toad, common Sunda toad, and Javanese toad. It is probably a complex of more than one true toad species that is widely ...

'') and marbled toad ('' D. stomaticus''), '' Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis'', Jerdon's bull frog (''

Hoplobatrachus crassus ''Hoplobatrachus crassus'', also called Jerdon's bullfrog, Jerdon's bull frog, and South Indian bullfrog, is a species of frog found widely distributed on the plains of India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Its range may extend to the adjacen ...

'') and Asian bullfrog ('' H. tigerinus''), Chunam tree frog (''

Polypedates maculatus ''Polypedates maculatus'', the Indian tree frog, or Chunam tree frog, is a common species of tree frog found in South Asia. It was described by John Edward Gray in 1830. Although now considered as a separate species again, for a time, the Him ...

'') and Terai tree frog (''P. taeniatus''), grey balloon frog ('' Uperodon globulosus''), marbled balloon frog ( ''U. systoma'') and painted globular frog (''U. taprobanicus''), ''

Minervarya ''Minervarya'' is a genus of frogs in the family Dicroglossidae from south Asia (Sri Lanka, the Indian subcontinent including Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh), and Nepal and Bhutan. They are also known as cricket frogs or rice frogs. Taxonomy Th ...

pierrei'', ''M. syhadrensis'' and ''M. teraiensis'', '' Microhyla'' and ''Sphaerotheca'' species were recorded between January 2017 and September 2019.

Fish

As of 2005, 28 fish species have been recorded in the rivers and lakes in the national park.

References

External links

* * {{Authority control National parks of Nepal Grasslands of Nepal Protected areas established in 1973 Wetlands of Nepal 1976 establishments in Nepal