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''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
of about 130
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
of large
shrub
A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...
s or small
tree
In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...
s in the
family
Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
Styracaceae, mostly
native
Native may refer to:
People
* Jus soli, citizenship by right of birth
* Indigenous peoples, peoples with a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory
** Native Americans (disambiguation)
In arts and entert ...
to warm
temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
to
tropical
The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in
the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern and southeastern Asia, but also crossing the equator in South America.
[Fritsch ''et al.'' (2001)] The resin obtained from the tree is called
benzoin or storax (not to be confused with the ''
Liquidambar
''Liquidambar'', commonly called sweetgum
(star gum in the UK),
gum, redgum, satin-walnut, or American storax, is the only genus in the flowering plant family Altingiaceae and has 15 species. They were formerly often treated in Hamamelidaceae ...
''
storax balsam
Storax ( la, storax; el, στύραξ, ''stúrax''), often commercially sold as styrax, is a natural resin isolated from the wounded bark of ''Liquidambar orientalis'' Mill. (Asia Minor) and ''Liquidambar styraciflua'' L. (Central America) (Ham ...
).
The genus ''Pamphilia'', sometimes regarded as distinct, is now included within ''Styrax'' based on analysis of
morphological and
DNA sequence
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Th ...
data. The
spicebush
Dried fruits of ''Lindera neesiana'' used as spice (coll. MHNT)
''Lindera'' is a genus of about 80–100[Lauraceae
Lauraceae, or the laurels, is a plant family that includes the true laurel and its closest relatives. This family comprises about 2850 known species in about 45 genera worldwide (Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ). They are dicotyledons, and occur ma ...](_blank)
.
Styrax trees grow to 2–14 m tall, and have alternate,
deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and Botany, the term ''deciduous'' () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
or
evergreen
In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This also pertains to plants that retain their foliage only in warm climates, and contrasts with deciduous plants, which ...
simple ovate
leaves
A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
1–18 cm long and 2–10 cm broad. The
flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...
s are pendulous, with a white 5–10-lobed
corolla, produced 3–30 together on open or dense
panicle
A panicle is a much-branched inflorescence. (softcover ). Some authors distinguish it from a compound spike inflorescence, by requiring that the flowers (and fruit) be pedicellate (having a single stem per flower). The branches of a panicle are of ...
s 5–25 cm long. The
fruit
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering.
Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...
is an oblong dry
drupe
In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is an indehiscent fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the ''pit'', ''stone'', or '' pyrena'') of hardened endocarp with a seed (''kernel'') ...
, smooth and lacking ribs or narrow wings, unlike the fruit of the related snowdrop trees (''
Halesia
''Halesia'', also known as silverbell or snowdrop tree, is a small genus of four or five species of deciduous large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae.
Range
They are native to eastern Asia (southeast China) and eastern North Amer ...
'') and epaulette trees (''
Pterostyrax
''Pterostyrax'', the epaulette tree, is a small genus of four species of deciduous large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, native to eastern Asia in China and Japan. They grow tall, with alternate, simple ovate leaves long and ...
'').
Uses
Uses of resin
Benzoin resin
Benzoin or benjamin (corrupted pronunciation) is a balsamic resin obtained from the bark of several species of trees in the genus ''Styrax''. It is used in perfumes and some kinds of incense and as a flavoring and medicine (see tincture of benz ...
, a dried exudation from pierced
bark, is currently produced from various ''Styrax'' species native to
Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
,
Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
, and
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
. Commonly traded are the resins of ''S. tonkinensis'' (Siam benzoin), ''
S. benzoin'' (Sumatra benzoin), and ''S. benzoides''. The name ''benzoin'' is probably derived from
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
''lubān jāwī'' (لبان جاوي, "Javan
frankincense
Frankincense (also known as olibanum) is an aromatic resin used in incense and perfumes, obtained from trees of the genus ''Boswellia'' in the family Burseraceae. The word is from Old French ('high-quality incense').
There are several species o ...
); compare the obsolete terms ''gum benjamin'' and ''benjoin''. This incidentally shows that the Arabs were aware of the origin of these resins, and that by the late
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
at latest international trade in them was probably of major importance.
The chemical
benzoin (2-hydroxy-2-phenylacetophenone), despite the apparent similarity of the name, is not contained in benzoin resin in measurable quantities. However, benzoin resin does contain small amounts of the
hydrocarbon
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic, and their odors are usually weak or ex ...
styrene
Styrene () is an organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2. This derivative of benzene is a colorless oily liquid, although aged samples can appear yellowish. The compound evaporates easily and has a sweet smell, although high concen ...
, named however for Levant storax (from ''
Liquidambar orientalis
''Liquidambar Orientalis'', commonly known as oriental sweetgum or Turkish sweetgum, is a deciduous tree in the genus ''Liquidambar'', native to the eastern Mediterranean region, that occurs as pure stands mainly in the floodplains of southwest ...
),'' from which it was first isolated, and not for the genus ''Styrax'' itself; industrially produced styrene is now used to produce
polystyrene
Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic polymer made from monomers of the aromatic hydrocarbon styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed. General-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight. It is a ...
plastic
Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be moulded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptab ...
s, including
Styrofoam
Styrofoam is a trademarked brand of closed-cell extruded polystyrene foam (XPS), commonly called "Blue Board", manufactured as foam continuous building insulation board used in walls, roofs, and foundations as thermal insulation and water barrie ...
.
History of sources
Since
Antiquity
Antiquity or Antiquities may refer to:
Historical objects or periods Artifacts
*Antiquities, objects or artifacts surviving from ancient cultures
Eras
Any period before the European Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries) but still within the histo ...
, storax resin has been used in
perfume
Perfume (, ; french: parfum) is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds (fragrances), fixatives and solvents, usually in liquid form, used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces an agreeable scent. Th ...
s, certain types of
incense
Incense is aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also be ...
, and
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
s.
There is some degree of uncertainty as to exactly what resin old sources refer to.
Turkish sweetgum (''Liquidambar orientalis'') is a quite unrelated tree in the family
Altingiaceae
Altingiaceae is a small family of flowering plants in the order Saxifragales, Peter F. Stevens (2001 onwards). "Altingiaceae". At: Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. At: Missouri Botanical Garden Website. (see ''External links'' below) consisting of ...
that produces a similar resin traded in modern times as ''
storax
Storax ( la, storax; el, στύραξ, ''stúrax''), often commercially sold as styrax, is a natural resin isolated from the wounded bark of ''Liquidambar orientalis'' Mill. (Asia Minor) and ''Liquidambar styraciflua'' L. (Central America) (Ham ...
'' or as ''Levant storax'', like the resins of other
sweetgums, and a number of confusing variations thereupon. Turkish sweetgum is a
relict
A relict is a surviving remnant of a natural phenomenon.
Biology
A relict (or relic) is an organism that at an earlier time was abundant in a large area but now occurs at only one or a few small areas.
Geology and geomorphology
In geology, a r ...
species that occurs only in a small area in SW
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
(and not in the
Levant
The Levant () is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia. In its narrowest sense, which is in use today in archaeology and other cultural contexts, it is eq ...
at all); presumably, quite some of the "storax resin" of the
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic peri ...
and the
Ancient Roman
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC ...
sources was from this sweetgum, rather than a ''Styrax,'' although at least during the former era genuine ''Styrax'' resin, probably from ''
S. officinalis,'' was imported in quantity from the
Near East
The ''Near East''; he, המזרח הקרוב; arc, ܕܢܚܐ ܩܪܒ; fa, خاور نزدیک, Xāvar-e nazdik; tr, Yakın Doğu is a geographical term which roughly encompasses a transcontinental region in Western Asia, that was once the hist ...
by
Phoenicia
Phoenicia () was an ancient thalassocratic civilization originating in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily located in modern Lebanon. The territory of the Phoenician city-states extended and shrank throughout their histor ...
n merchants, and
Herodotus of Halicarnassus
Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria (Italy). He is known for having ...
in the 5th century BC indicates that different kinds of storax were traded.
The ''nataf'' (נטף) of the incense sacred to
Yahweh
Yahweh *''Yahwe'', was the national god of ancient Israel and Judah. The origins of his worship reach at least to the early Iron Age, and likely to the Late Bronze Age if not somewhat earlier, and in the oldest biblical literature he posse ...
, mentioned in the
Book of Exodus
The Book of Exodus (from grc, Ἔξοδος, translit=Éxodos; he, שְׁמוֹת ''Šəmōṯ'', "Names") is the second book of the Bible. It narrates the story of the Exodus, in which the Israelites leave slavery in Biblical Egypt through t ...
, is loosely translated by the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
term ''
staktē'' (στακτή,
AMP #REDIRECT Amp #REDIRECT Amp
{{Redirect category shell, {{R from other capitalisation{{R from ambiguous page ...
{{Redirect category shell, {{R from other capitalisation{{R from ambiguous page ...
: ), or an unspecific "gum resin" or similar term (
NIV Niv may refer to:
* Niv, a personal name; for people with the name, see
* Niv Art Movies, a film production company of India
* Niv Art Centre, in New Delhi, India
NIV may refer to:
* The New International Version, a translation of the Bible into E ...
: ). ''Nataf'' may have meant the resin of ''Styrax officinalis'' or of some other plant, perhaps Turkish sweetgum, which is unlikely to have been imported in quantity into the
Near East
The ''Near East''; he, המזרח הקרוב; arc, ܕܢܚܐ ܩܪܒ; fa, خاور نزدیک, Xāvar-e nazdik; tr, Yakın Doğu is a geographical term which roughly encompasses a transcontinental region in Western Asia, that was once the hist ...
.
Since the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
, Southeast Asian benzoin resins became increasingly available; today there is little international trade in ''S. officinalis'' resin and little production of Turkish sweetgum resin due to that species' decline in numbers.
Use as incense
Storax incense is used in the
Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...
and adjacent regions as an
air freshener
Air fresheners are consumer products that typically emit fragrance and are used in homes or commercial interiors such as restrooms, foyers, hallways, vestibules and other smaller indoor areas, as well as larger areas such as hotel lobbies, auto d ...
. This was adopted in the European ''
Papier d'Arménie
Armenian paper is a type of incense that has been produced for centuries. The paper is infused with essences, fragrances or essential oils in order to achieve a perfuming or cleansing effect. Examples of Armenian paper include Papier d'Armén ...
''. Though highly toxic
benzene
Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each. Because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, ...
and
formaldehyde
Formaldehyde ( , ) (systematic name methanal) is a naturally occurring organic compound with the formula and structure . The pure compound is a pungent, colourless gas that polymerises spontaneously into paraformaldehyde (refer to section F ...
are produced when burning ''Styrax'' incense (as with almost all organic substances), the amounts produced by burning a strip of ''Papier d'Arménie'' every 2–3 days are less than those achieved by many synthetic air fresheners. Storax resin from southern
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate. ...
n species was burned during
frankincense
Frankincense (also known as olibanum) is an aromatic resin used in incense and perfumes, obtained from trees of the genus ''Boswellia'' in the family Burseraceae. The word is from Old French ('high-quality incense').
There are several species o ...
(''
Boswellia
''Boswellia'' is a genus of trees in the order Sapindales, known for its fragrant resin. The biblical incense frankincense is an extract from the resin of the tree ''Boswellia sacra'', and is now produced also from '' B. frereana''.
Frankincens ...
'' resin) harvesting; it was said to drive away snakes:
" he Arabiansgather frankincense by burning that ''storax'' which Phoenicians carry to Hellas; they burn this and so get the frankincense; for the spice-bearing trees are guarded by small winged snakes of varied color, many around each tree; these are the snakes that attack Egypt. Nothing except the smoke of ''storax'' will drive them away from the trees."
Medical uses
There has been little dedicated research into the medical properties of storax resin, but it has been used for long, and apparently with favorable results. It was important in
Islamic medicine
In the history of medicine, "Islamic medicine" is the science of medicine developed in the Middle East, and usually written in Arabic, the '' lingua franca'' of Islamic civilization.
Islamic medicine adopted, systematized and developed the med ...
;
Avicenna
Ibn Sina ( fa, ابن سینا; 980 – June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islamic G ...
(Ibn Seena, ابن سینا) discusses ''
S. officinalis'' it in his ''Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb'' (القانون في الطب, ''
The Law of Medicine''). He indicates that storax resin mixed with other antibiotic substances and hardening material gives a good
dental restorative material. Benzoin resin is a component of the "Theriaca Andromachi Senioris", a
Venice treacle
Theriac or theriaca is a medical concoction originally labelled by the Greeks in the 1st century AD and widely adopted in the ancient world as far away as Persia, China and India via the trading links of the Silk Route. It was an alexipharmic, o ...
recipe in the 1686 ''d'Amsterdammer Apotheek''.
Tincture of benzoin
Tincture of benzoin is a pungent solution of benzoin resin in ethanol. A similar preparation called Friar's Balsam or Compound Benzoin Tincture contains, in addition, Cape aloes or Barbados aloes and storax resin. Friar's balsam was invented by Jo ...
is benzoin resin dissolved in
alcohol
Alcohol most commonly refers to:
* Alcohol (chemistry), an organic compound in which a hydroxyl group is bound to a carbon atom
* Alcohol (drug), an intoxicant found in alcoholic drinks
Alcohol may also refer to:
Chemicals
* Ethanol, one of sev ...
. This and its numerous derived versions like ''lait virginal'' and friar's balsam were highly esteemed in 19th-century European
cosmetics
Cosmetics are constituted mixtures of chemical compounds derived from either natural sources, or synthetically created ones. Cosmetics have various purposes. Those designed for personal care and skin care can be used to cleanse or protect ...
and other household purposes; they apparently had
antibacterial
An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of ...
properties. Today tincture of benzoin is most often used in
first aid
First aid is the first and immediate assistance given to any person with either a minor or serious illness or injury, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, or to promote recovery. It includes initial in ...
for small injuries, as it acts as a
disinfectant
A disinfectant is a chemical substance or compound used to inactivate or destroy microorganisms on inert surfaces. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially resistant bacterial spores; it is less effective than st ...
and local
anesthetic
An anesthetic (American English) or anaesthetic (British English; see spelling differences) is a drug used to induce anesthesia — in other words, to result in a temporary loss of sensation or awareness. They may be divided into two ...
and seems to promote healing. Benzoin resin and its derivatives are also used as
additives in cigarettes.
The antibiotic activity of benzoin resin seems mostly due to its abundant
benzoic acid
Benzoic acid is a white (or colorless) solid organic compound with the formula , whose structure consists of a benzene ring () with a carboxyl () substituent. It is the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid. The name is derived from gum benzoin, wh ...
and benzoic acid
ester
In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an oxoacid (organic or inorganic) in which at least one hydroxyl group () is replaced by an alkoxy group (), as in the substitution reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. Glycerides ar ...
s, which were named after the resin; other less well known
secondary compound
Secondary metabolites, also called specialised metabolites, toxins, secondary products, or natural products, are organic compounds produced by any lifeform, e.g. bacteria, fungi, animals, or plants, which are not directly involved in the norma ...
s such as lignans like
pinoresinol
Pinoresinol is a tetrahydrofuran lignan found in ''Styrax sp.'', ''Forsythia suspensa, and in Forsythia koreana''. It is also found in the caterpillar of the cabbage butterfly, ''Pieris rapae'' where it serves as a defence against ants.
In food, i ...
are likely significant too.
Horticultural uses
Several species of storax are popular
ornamental tree
Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that i ...
s in parks and gardens, especially ''S. japonicus'' and its cultivars such as 'Emerald Pagoda', and ''
Styrax obassia
''Styrax obassia'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Styracaceae. It is native to Hokkaido Island in Japan, and to China.
Taxonomy
The name of the plant is sometimes spelled ''Styrax obassis'', but the original spelling is ''obassi ...
''.
Uses of wood
The wood of larger species is suitable for fine handicrafts. That of ''egonoki'' (エゴノキ, ''S. japonicus'') is used to build ''
kokyū
The is a traditional Japanese string instrument, the only one played with a bow. A variant of the instrument also exists in Okinawa, called in Okinawan.
The , like the , has its origins in Okinawa. Although it is similar to Chinese , it a ...
'' (胡弓), the
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
ese
bowed instrument
Bowed string instruments are a subcategory of string instruments that are played by a bow rubbing the strings. The bow rubbing the string causes vibration which the instrument emits as sound.
Despite the numerous specialist studies devoted to ...
.
Ecology and conservation
The resin of ''Styrax'' acts to kill wound
pathogen
In biology, a pathogen ( el, πάθος, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of") in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ ...
s and deter
herbivores
A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpart ...
. Consequently, for example, few
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
caterpillar
Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths).
As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...
s eat storax compared to other plants. Those of the
two-barred flasher
''Astraptes fulgerator'', the two-barred flasher, is a spread-wing skipper butterfly in the genus '' Astraptes'' which may constitute a possible cryptic species complex. It ranges all over the Americas, from the southern United States to north ...
(''Astraptes fulgerator'') were recorded on ''S. argenteus'', but they do not seem to use it on a regular basis.
[Hébert ''et al.'' (2004), Brower ''et al.'' (2006)]
Some storax species have declined in numbers due to unsustainable logging and
habitat degradation
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
. While most of these are classified as
vulnerable (VU) by the
IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
, only four trees of the nearly
extinct
Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...
''
palo de jazmin'' (''S. portoricensis'') are known to survive at a single location. Although legally protected, this species could be wiped out by a single
hurricane
A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depend ...
.
Selected species
* ''
Styrax agrestis
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family (biology), family Styracaceae, mostly native plant, native to warm temperateness, temperate to tropical regions of the No ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax americanus
''Styrax americanus'', the American snowbell or mock-orange, is a plant species native to the southeastern United States and the Ohio Valley. It has been reported from Texas and Florida to Virginia and Missouri. It generally grows in swamps and o ...
'' – SE USA
* ''
Styrax argenteus
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in easter ...
'' – N & S America
* ''
Styrax argentifolius
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax bashanensis'' – China
* ''
Styrax benzoides
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family (biology), family Styracaceae, mostly native plant, native to warm temperateness, temperate to tropical regions of the No ...
'' – Thailand, S China
* ''
Styrax benzoin
''Styrax benzoin'' is a species of tree native to Sumatra in Indonesia. Common names for the tree include gum benjamin tree, loban (in Arabic), kemenyan (in Indonesia and Malaysia), onycha, and Sumatra benzoin tree.
Distribution
It is a common ...
'' – Sumatra
* ''
Styrax calvescens'' – China
* ''
Styrax camporum
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay
* ''
Styrax chinensis'' – China
*''
Styrax chrysocalyx'' – Brazil
* ''
Styrax chrysocarpus
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family (biology), family Styracaceae, mostly native plant, native to warm temperateness, temperate to tropical regions of the No ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax confusus'' – China
* ''
Styrax cordatus
''Styrax cordatus'' is a species of plant in the family Styracaceae. It is native to Peru and Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador ...
'' – Peru and Ecuador
* ''
Styrax crotonoides
''Styrax crotonoides'' is a species of plant in the genus ''Styrax'' and family Styracaceae. It is found in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore
Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-sta ...
'' – Malaysia
* ''
Styrax dasyanthus'' – central China
* ''
Styrax faberi
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax ferrugineus
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in easter ...
'' – Braxil, Bolivia, Paraguay
* ''
Styrax formosanus
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax foveolaria
''Styrax foveolaria'' is a species of tree in the family Styracaceae. It is native to Peru and Ecuador. It has been classified by the IUCN as a vulnerable species
A vulnerable species is a species which has been Conservation status, categorize ...
'' – Peru and Ecuador
* ''
Styrax fraserensis
''Styrax fraserensis'' is a species of flowering plant in the genus ''Styrax'' and family Styracaceae. It is a tree endemism, endemic to Peninsular Malaysia. It is threatened by habitat loss.
References
Styrax, fraserensis
Endemic flora ...
'' – Malaysia
* ''
Styrax grandiflorus
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in easter ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax grandifolius'' – SE USA
* ''
Styrax hainanensis
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family (biology), family Styracaceae, mostly native plant, native to warm temperateness, temperate to tropical regions of the No ...
'' – S China
* ''
Styrax hemsleyanus'' – China
* ''
Styrax hookeri
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family (biology), family Styracaceae, mostly native plant, native to warm temperateness, temperate to tropical regions of the No ...
'' – Himalaya
* ''
Styrax huanus'' – China
* ''
Styrax jaliscana
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – Mexico
* ''
Styrax japonicus
, also known as the Japanese snowbell, is a species of flowering plant in the family (botany), family Styracaceae, native species, native to Korea, Japan, and Southern China. Growing to tall by broad, it is a graceful, spreading deciduous tree ...
'' – Japan
* ''
Styrax limpritchii
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – SW China (Yunnan)
* ''
Styrax litseoides
''Styrax litseoides'' is a species of flowering plant in the genus ''Styrax'' and family Styracaceae. It is endemic to Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a count ...
'' – Vietnam
* ''
Styrax macranthus'' – China
* ''
Styrax macrocarpus
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax martii
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family (biology), family Styracaceae, mostly native plant, native to warm temperateness, temperate to tropical regions of the No ...
'' – Brazil
* ''
Styrax obassia
''Styrax obassia'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Styracaceae. It is native to Hokkaido Island in Japan, and to China.
Taxonomy
The name of the plant is sometimes spelled ''Styrax obassis'', but the original spelling is ''obassi ...
'' – Japan, China
* ''
Styrax odoratissimus
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax officinalis
''Styrax officinalis'' is a species of shrub in the family Styracaceae.
Description
''Styrax officinalis'' is a deciduous shrub reaching a height of . It has a simple, relaxed form, with very thin elliptical leaves long and wide, alternate and ...
'' – SE Europe, SW Asia
* ''
Styrax pentlandianus'' – Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia
* ''
Styrax perkinsiae
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family (biology), family Styracaceae, mostly native plant, native to warm temperateness, temperate to tropical regions of the No ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax peruvianus
''Styrax peruvianus'' is a species of tree in the family Styracaceae. It is found from Costa Rica south to Peru. It has been classified by the IUCN as a vulnerable species
A vulnerable species is a species which has been Conservation status, c ...
'' – Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
* ''
Styrax philadelphoides
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family (biology), family Styracaceae, mostly native plant, native to warm temperateness, temperate to tropical regions of the No ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax platanifolius
''Styrax platanifolius'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Styracaceae known by the common name sycamoreleaf snowbell. It is native to northeastern Mexico in the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas '' – Texas, NE Mexico
* ''
Styrax pohlii
''Styrax pohlii'' is a species of tree in the family Styracaceae. It is native to South America
South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in t ...
'' – Suriname, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia
* ''
Styrax portoricensis
''Styrax portoricensis'', locally known as ''palo de jazmin'', is a species of flowering plant in the family Styracaceae. It is endemic to Puerto Rico. It is one of the rarest endemic trees of Puerto Rico and is known to occur only in the northea ...
'' – Puerto Rico
* ''
Styrax redivivus'' – California
* ''
Styrax roseus
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax rugosus
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in easter ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax schweliense
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – W China
* ''
Styrax serrulatus'' – Himalaya, SW China
* ''
Styrax shiraianum
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in easte ...
'' – Japan
* ''
Styrax suberifolius'' – China
* ''
Styrax supaii
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in easter ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax tomentosus
''Styrax foveolaria'' is a species of tree in the family Styracaceae. It is native to Peru, Ecuador and Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America ...
'' – Colombia, Ecuador and Peru
* ''
Styrax tonkinensis
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – SE Asia
* ''
Styrax veitchiorum
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax vilcabambae
''Styrax vilcabambae'' (syn. ''Pamphilia vilcabambae'' D.R.Simpson) is a species of flowering plant found in the genus ''Styrax'' and the family Styracaceae. It is endemic to Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat ...
'' – Peru
* ''
Styrax wilsonii
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – W China
* ''
Styrax wuyuanensis
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in easte ...
'' – China
* ''
Styrax zhejiangensis
''Styrax'' (common names storax or snowbell) is a genus of about 130 species of large shrubs or small trees in the family Styracaceae, mostly native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority in eastern ...
'' – China
Footnotes
References
* (2006): Problems with DNA barcodes for species delimitation: 'ten species' of ''Astraptes fulgerator'' reassessed (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae). ''Systematics and Biodiversity'' 4(2): 127–132.
* (2001). Phylogeny and Biogeography of the Styracaceae. ''
Int. J Plant Sci.'' 162(6, Supplement): S95–S116.
* (c.440 BC): ''
The Histories''
Annotated HTML fulltextof 1921
A. D. Godley
Alfred Denis Godley (22 January 1856 – 27 June 1925) was an Anglo-Irish classical scholar and author of humorous poems. From 1910 to 1920 he was Public Orator at the University of Oxford, a post that involved composing citations in Latin for ...
translation.
* (1997): Analytical Study of Free and Ester Bound Benzoic and Cinnamic Acids of Gum Benzoin Resins by GC-MS and HPLC-frit FAB-MS. ''
Phytochem. Anal.'' 8(2): 63-73.
* (2004): Ten species in one: DNA barcoding reveals cryptic species in the semitropical skipper butterfly ''Astraptes fulgerator''. ''
PNAS
''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America'' (often abbreviated ''PNAS'' or ''PNAS USA'') is a peer-reviewed multidisciplinary scientific journal. It is the official journal of the National Academy of Scien ...
'' 101(41): 14812-14817.
PDF fulltextSupporting Appendices
* (1997). A revision of ''Styrax'' L. section ''Pamphilia'' (Mart. ex A. DC.) B. Walln. (Styracaceae). ''Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien'' 99B: 681–720.
{{Taxonbar, from=Q525062
Medicinal plants
Ericales genera