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The grey currawong (''Strepera versicolor'') is a large
passerine A passerine () is any bird of the order Passeriformes (; from Latin 'sparrow' and '-shaped'), which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines are distinguished from other orders of birds by th ...
bird native to southern Australia, including
Tasmania ) , nickname = , image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates: , subdivision_type = Country , subdi ...
. One of three
currawong Currawongs are three species of medium-sized passerine birds belonging to the genus ''Strepera'' in the family Artamidae native to Australia. These are the grey currawong (''Strepera versicolor''), pied currawong (''S. graculina''), and black ...
species in the genus ''Strepera'', it is closely related to the butcherbirds and
Australian magpie The Australian magpie (''Gymnorhina tibicen'') is a black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea. Although once considered to be three separate species, it is now considered to be one, with nine recognised su ...
of the family Artamidae. It is a large crow-like bird, around long on average; with yellow irises, a heavy bill, dark plumage with white undertail and wing patches. The male and female are similar in appearance. Six subspecies are recognised and are distinguished by overall plumage colour, which ranges from slate-grey for the
nominate Nomination is part of the process of selecting a candidate for either election to a public office, or the bestowing of an honor or award. A collection of nominees narrowed from the full list of candidates is a short list. Political office In the ...
from New South Wales and eastern Victoria and subspecies ''plumbea'' from Western Australia, to sooty black for the clinking currawong of Tasmania and subspecies ''halmaturina'' from
Kangaroo Island Kangaroo Island, also known as Karta Pintingga (literally 'Island of the Dead' in the language of the Kaurna people), is Australia's third-largest island, after Tasmania and Melville Island. It lies in the state of South Australia, southwest ...
. All grey currawongs have a loud distinctive ringing or clinking call. Within its range, the grey currawong is generally sedentary, although it is a winter visitor in the southeastern corner of Australia. Comparatively little studied, much of its behaviour and habits is poorly known.
Omnivorous An omnivore () is an animal that has the ability to eat and survive on both plant and animal matter. Obtaining energy and nutrients from plant and animal matter, omnivores digest carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber, and metabolize the nut ...
, it has a diet that includes a variety of berries,
invertebrate Invertebrates are a paraphyletic group of animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a ''backbone'' or ''spine''), derived from the notochord. This is a grouping including all animals apart from the chordate ...
s, and small vertebrates. The habitat includes all kinds of forested areas as well as scrubland in drier parts of the country. It is less arboreal than the
pied currawong The pied currawong (''Strepera graculina'') is a black passerine bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island. One of three currawong species in the genus ''Strepera'', it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of ...
, spending more time foraging on the ground. It builds nests high in trees, which has limited the study of its breeding habits. Unlike its more common relative, it has adapted poorly to human impact and has declined in much of its range, although not considered endangered.


Taxonomy and naming

The grey currawong was first described as ''Corvus versicolor'' by ornithologist John Latham in 1801, who gave it the common name of "variable crow". The specific name ''versicolor'' means 'of variable colours' in
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
.Higgins et al., p. 564. Other old common names include grey crow-shrike, leaden crow-shrike, mountain magpie, black-winged currawong (in western Victoria), clinking currawong (in Tasmania), and squeaker (in Western Australia). The black-winged currawong was known to the
Ramindjeri The Ramindjeri or Raminjeri people were an Aboriginal Australian people forming part of the ''Kukabrak'' grouping now otherwise known as the Ngarrindjeri people. They were the most westerly Ngarrindjeri, living in the area around Encounter Bay an ...
people of
Encounter Bay Encounter Bay is a bay in the Australian state of South Australia located on the state's south central coast about south of the state capital of Adelaide. It was named by Matthew Flinders after his encounter on 8 April 1802 with Nicolas Baudi ...
as ''wati-eri'', the word meaning "to sneak" or "to track". ''Kiling-kildi'' was a name derived from the call used by the people of the lower
Murray River The Murray River (in South Australia: River Murray) (Ngarrindjeri: ''Millewa'', Yorta Yorta: ''Tongala'') is a river in Southeastern Australia. It is Australia's longest river at extent. Its tributaries include five of the next six longest ...
. Together with the
pied currawong The pied currawong (''Strepera graculina'') is a black passerine bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island. One of three currawong species in the genus ''Strepera'', it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of ...
(''S. graculina'') and
black currawong The black currawong (''Strepera fuliginosa''), also known locally as the black jay, is a large passerine bird endemic to Tasmania and the nearby islands within the Bass Strait. One of three currawong species in the genus ''Strepera'', it is clo ...
(''S. fuliginosa''), the grey currawong forms the genus ''
Strepera Currawongs are three species of medium-sized passerine birds belonging to the genus ''Strepera'' in the family Artamidae native to Australia. These are the grey currawong (''Strepera versicolor''), pied currawong (''S. graculina''), and black ...
''. Although
crow A crow is a bird of the genus '' Corvus'', or more broadly a synonym for all of ''Corvus''. Crows are generally black in colour. The word "crow" is used as part of the common name of many species. The related term "raven" is not pinned scientifica ...
-like in appearance and habits, currawongs are only distantly related to true crows, and are instead closely related to the
Australian magpie The Australian magpie (''Gymnorhina tibicen'') is a black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea. Although once considered to be three separate species, it is now considered to be one, with nine recognised su ...
and the butcherbirds. The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist
John Albert Leach John Albert Leach (19 March 1870 – 3 October 1929) was an ornithologist, teacher and headmaster in the state of Victoria, Australia. Leach was born in Ballarat, Victoria and educated at Creswick Grammar School (where he was dux), Melbou ...
after he had studied their musculature. Ornithologists
Charles Sibley Charles Gald Sibley (August 7, 1917 – April 12, 1998) was an American ornithologist and molecular biologist. He had an immense influence on the scientific classification of birds, and the work that Sibley initiated has substantially altered our u ...
and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between the
woodswallow Woodswallows are soft-plumaged, somber-coloured passerine birds in the genus ''Artamus''. The woodswallows are either treated as a subfamily, Artaminae, in an expanded family Artamidae (also including the subfamily Cracticinae), or as the only ge ...
s and the butcherbirds and relatives in 1985, and combined them into a Cracticini clade, which later became the family Artamidae.


Subspecies

Six subspecies are spread around Australia. They vary extensively in the colour of their plumage, from grey to sooty black, and the amount of white on their wings, and most were at one time considered separate species: * ''S. v. versicolor'', the nominate race, is known as the grey currawong, and is found in New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, and eastern and central Victoria, west to
Port Phillip Port Phillip ( Kulin: ''Narm-Narm'') or Port Phillip Bay is a horsehead-shaped enclosed bay on the central coast of southern Victoria, Australia. The bay opens into the Bass Strait via a short, narrow channel known as The Rip, and is com ...
on the coast, and to the
Grampians The Grampian Mountains (''Am Monadh'' in Gaelic) is one of the three major mountain ranges in Scotland, that together occupy about half of Scotland. The other two ranges are the Northwest Highlands and the Southern Uplands. The Grampian rang ...
inland.Higgins et al., p. 575. * ''S. v. intermedia'', the grey-brown form of South Australia, is also known as the brown currawong. It is found in the Yorke and
Eyre Peninsula The Eyre Peninsula is a triangular peninsula in South Australia. It is bounded by the Spencer Gulf on the east, the Great Australian Bight on the west, and the Gawler Ranges to the north. Originally called Eyre’s Peninsula, it was named af ...
s, the
Gawler Gawler is the oldest country town on the Australian mainland in the state of South Australia. It was named after the second Governor (British Vice-Regal representative) of the colony of South Australia, George Gawler. It is about north of the ...
and
Mount Lofty Ranges The Mount Lofty Ranges are a range of mountains in the Australian state of South Australia which for a small part of its length borders the east of Adelaide. The part of the range in the vicinity of Adelaide is called the Adelaide Hills and ...
and the eastern areas of the
Great Australian Bight The Great Australian Bight is a large oceanic bight, or open bay, off the central and western portions of the southern coastline of mainland Australia. Extent Two definitions of the extent are in use – one used by the International Hydrog ...
. The smallest of the six subspecies, it has a shorter wing and tail. Birds in the southern Eyre Peninsula have darker plumage than those in the northern parts.Higgins et al., p. 577. First described by
Richard Bowdler Sharpe Richard Bowdler Sharpe (22 November 1847 – 25 December 1909) was an English zoologist and ornithologist who worked as curator of the bird collection at the British Museum of natural history. In the course of his career he published several mo ...
in 1877 from a specimen collected in
Port Lincoln Port Lincoln is a town on the Lower Eyre Peninsula in the Australian state of South Australia. It is situated on the shore of Boston Bay, which opens eastward into Spencer Gulf. It is the largest city in the West Coast region, and is located a ...
, its specific name is the Latin adjective ''intermedia'' "intermediate". * ''S. v. arguta'', the darkest race, is from eastern Tasmania and is known as the clinking currawong from its callHiggins et al., p. 570. or locally as the black magpie. Sharpe called it the Tasmanian hill-crow. It was first described by
John Gould John Gould (; 14 September 1804 – 3 February 1881) was an English ornithologist. He published a number of monographs on birds, illustrated by plates produced by his wife, Elizabeth Gould, and several other artists, including Edward Lear, ...
in 1846. The specific name is the Latin adjective ''argūtus'' "shrill/piercing", "noisy" or "melodious". Larger and heavier than the nominate subspecies, it has longer wings, tail, bill, and tarsus.Higgins et al., p. 576. *''S. v. melanoptera'', known as the black-winged currawong, is from western Victoria's Mallee region and South Australia west to the Mount Lofty Ranges. It can be difficult to distinguish from the black and pied currawongs at any distance. Of similar size and bill-shape to the nominate subspecies, it has a darker blackish-brown plumage and lacks the white wing markings. Birds from much of western Victoria are intermediates between this and the nominate subspecies, often bearing partial white markings on the wings. Similarly, in the western part of its range in South Australia are intermediate with subspecies to the west and also have some paler patches. Named by John Gould in 1846, its specific name is derived from the
Ancient Greek Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic p ...
words ''melano-'' "black" and ''pteron'' "wings". American ornithologist
Dean Amadon Dean Arthur Amadon (June 5, 1912 – January 12, 2003) was an American ornithologist and an authority on birds of prey. Amadon was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to Arthur and Mary Amadon. He received a BS from Hobart College in 1934 and a Ph.D. ...
observed that birds from northwestern Victoria were lighter in plumage than those of South Australia, and tentatively classified them as a separate subspecies ''howei''. However, he noted they warranted further investigation, and subsequent authorities have not recognised the populations as separate. * ''S. v. halmaturina'' is restricted to
Kangaroo Island Kangaroo Island, also known as Karta Pintingga (literally 'Island of the Dead' in the language of the Kaurna people), is Australia's third-largest island, after Tasmania and Melville Island. It lies in the state of South Australia, southwest ...
. A dark-plumaged subspecies, it has a longer narrower bill than the nominate race, and is lighter in weight. The specific name is the adjective ''halmaturina'' "of Kangaroo Island". It was first named by
Gregory Mathews Gregory Macalister Mathews CBE FRSE FZS FLS (10 September 1876 – 27 March 1949) was an Australian-born amateur ornithologist who spent most of his later life in England. Life He was born in Biamble in New South Wales the son of Robert H. M ...
in 1912. * ''S. v. plumbea'' is found from western South Australia and the southwestern corner of the Northern Territory westwards into Western Australia. It is colloquially known as "squeaker" from the sound of its call. Named by Gould in 1846, its specific name is the Latin adjective ''plumběus'' "leaden". The common name leaden cuckoo-shrike refers to this group. Very similar in plumage to the nominate subspecies, it differs in its thicker, more downward curved bill. The base plumage is variable, but tends to be slightly darker and possibly more brown-tinged than the nominate subspecies. Amadon noted that a specimen from the
Everard Ranges The Everard Ranges, officially known as The Everard Ranges, is a range of low rounded granite hills located in the Australian state of South Australia in the Aṉangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara lands about west of Mintabie. It is of Pa ...
in northwestern South Australia was larger and paler than other specimens of ''plumbea''. Although he considered these Central Australian birds as a separate subspecies ''centralia'', he conceded very little was known. They have been considered part of ''plumbea'' subsequently.


Description

A larger and more slender bird than its more common relative the pied currawong, the adult grey currawong ranges from in length, with an average of around ; the wingspan varies from , averaging around , with an average weight of around . Adults of the Tasmanian subspecies average around . The male is on average slightly larger than the female, but the size and weight ranges mostly overlap.Higgins ''et al''., p. 574. It is generally a dark grey bird with white in the wing, undertail coverts, the base of the tail and most visibly, the tip of the tail. It has yellow eyes. The orbital (eye-ring), legs and feet are black, whereas the bill and
gape The beak, bill, or rostrum is an external anatomical structure found mostly in birds, but also in turtles, non-avian dinosaurs and a few mammals. A beak is used for eating, preening, manipulating objects, killing prey, fighting, probing for food ...
range from greyish black to black. The overall plumage varies according to subspecies. The nominate race ''versicolor'' and ''plumbea'' are slate-grey in colour, while ''melanoptera'' and ''intermedia'' are blackish-brown, and ''arguta'' of Tasmania and ''halmaturina'' a sooty black. The size of the white patch on the wing also varies, being large and easily spotted in ''versicolor'', ''plumbea'', ''intermedia'' and ''arguta'', but non-existent or indistinct in ''melanoptera'' and ''halmaturina''. More specifically, the nominate subspecies has a grey forehead, crown, nape, ear-coverts and throat with the face a darker grey-black. The feathers of the throat are longer, giving rise to
hackles Hackles are the erectile plumage or hair in the neck area of some birds and mammals. In birds, the hackle is the group of feathers found along the back and side of the neck. The hackles of some types of chicken, particularly roosters, are long, ...
there. The upperparts and underparts are a brownish-grey and become more brown with age. Towards the belly, the feathers are a paler grey. The wings are grey-brown, and the blackish primaries have white edges which merge to form the prominent white wing markings. Birds appear to
moult In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer ...
once a year in spring or summer, although observations have been limited. Young birds spend about a year in juvenile plumage before moulting into adult plumage at around a year old. Juvenile birds have more brown-tinged and uniform plumage; the darker colour around the lores and eyes are less distinct.Higgins et al., p. 573. Their blackish bill is yellow-tipped, and the gape is yellow. Their eyes are brownish, but turn yellow early. The exact timing is unknown but likely to be around four months of age.


Voice

Unlike that of the pied currawong, the grey currawong's call does not sound like its name. The grey currawong is best known for making a sound variously transcribed as ''p'rink'', ''clink'', ''cling'', ''ker-link'' or ''tullock'', either in flight or when gathered in any numbers. The call has been described as very loud and ringing in the Tasmanian and Kangaroo Island subspecies;
Edwin Ashby Edwin Ashby (2 November 1861 – 8 January 1941) was an Adelaide based Australian property developer and a noted malacologist interested in chitonsWinckworth R. (1942). "Obituary. Edwin Ashby, 1861-1941". ''Proceedings of the Malacological Society ...
wrote that in Tasmania it was akin to the squeaking of a wheelbarrow and Gregory Mathews that it was like the ''kling'' of an anvil. Elsewhere, their call has been likened to the screech of ungreased metal grinding in Victoria and South Australia (races ''versicolor'' and ''melanoptera'' are noted as similar to each other), and as a harsh squeak in Western Australia.Higgins et al., p. 571. The clinking call resembles that of the
superb lyrebird The superb lyrebird (''Menura novaehollandiae'') is an Australian songbird, one of two species from the family Menuridae. It is one of the world's largest songbirds, and is renowned for its elaborate tail and courtship displays, and its excell ...
, which imitates the currawong call at times. A softer and more tuneful musical call has been called the ''toy-trumpet call''. It has been reported to foretell rainy weather. The loud ''bell call'' resembles the clinking call, and is a clear piping sound. Females and young make an insistent repetitive squawking when begging for food from a parent or mate, similar to the begging call of the
Australian magpie The Australian magpie (''Gymnorhina tibicen'') is a black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea. Although once considered to be three separate species, it is now considered to be one, with nine recognised su ...
, and make a gobbling sound when fed.


Similar species

The grey currawong is unlikely to be confused with other species apart from other currawongs. It is immediately distinguishable from crows and ravens as they have wholly black plumage, a stockier build and white (rather than yellow) eyes. However, it can be encountered in mixed-species flocks with the pied currawong. It can be distinguished by its paler plumage, lack of white base to the tail, straighter bill, and very different vocalisations.Higgins ''et al''., p. 565. In northwestern Victoria, the black-winged currawong (subspecies ''melanoptera'') has a darker plumage than other grey subspecies, and is thus more similar in appearance to the pied currawong, but its wings lack the white primaries of the latter species.Higgins et al., p. 531. In Tasmania, the black currawong is similar but has a heavier bill and call similar to the pied and lacks the white rump.Higgins et al., p. 557.


Distribution and habitat

Grey currawongs are found right across the southern part of Australia from the Central Coast region of New South Wales, occurring south of latitude 32°S southwards and westwards, from the vicinity of
Mudgee Mudgee is a town in the Central West of New South Wales, Australia. It is in the broad fertile Cudgegong River valley north-west of Sydney and is the largest town in the Mid-Western Regional Council local government area as well as being th ...
in the north and southwest to Temora and
Albury Albury () is a major regional city in New South Wales, Australia. It is located on the Hume Highway and the northern side of the Murray River. Albury is the seat of local government for the council area which also bears the city's name – the ...
onto the
Riverina The Riverina is an agricultural region of south-western New South Wales, Australia. The Riverina is distinguished from other Australian regions by the combination of flat plains, warm to hot climate and an ample supply of water for irrigation ...
and across most of Victoria and southern South Australia to the fertile
south-west The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each se ...
corner of
Western Australia Western Australia (commonly abbreviated as WA) is a state of Australia occupying the western percent of the land area of Australia excluding external territories. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to th ...
and the semi-arid country surrounding it. The clinking subspecies is endemic to
Tasmania ) , nickname = , image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates: , subdivision_type = Country , subdi ...
, where it is more common in the eastern parts, but is absent from
King King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the tit ...
and
Flinders Island Flinders Island, the largest island in the Furneaux Group, is a island in the Bass Strait, northeast of the island of Tasmania. Flinders Island was the place where the last remnants of aboriginal Tasmanian population were exiled by the colo ...
s in Bass Strait. There is an outlying population in the arid area where the
Northern Territory The Northern Territory (commonly abbreviated as NT; formally the Northern Territory of Australia) is an Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. The Northern Territory shares its borders with Western Aust ...
meets
South Australia South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories ...
and Western Australia.Higgins et al., p. 567. In general, the grey currawong is sedentary throughout its range, although it appears to be resident in the cooler months only in south
Gippsland Gippsland is a rural region that makes up the southeastern part of Victoria, Australia, mostly comprising the coastal plains to the rainward (southern) side of the Victorian Alps (the southernmost section of the Great Dividing Range). It cove ...
in eastern Victoria and the far south coast of New South Wales.Higgins et al., p. 568. The grey currawong is found in wet and dry
sclerophyll Sclerophyll is a type of vegetation that is adapted to long periods of dryness and heat. The plants feature hard leaves, short internodes (the distance between leaves along the stem) and leaf orientation which is parallel or oblique to direct ...
forests across its range, as well as mallee scrubland, and open areas such as parks or farmland near forested areas. It also inhabits pine plantations. Preferences vary between regions; subspecies ''versicolor'' is more common in wetter forests in southeastern mainland Australia, while the Tasmanian subspecies ''arguta'' is found most commonly in lowland dry sclerophyll forest. The subspecies ''melanoptera'' and ''intermedia'' are found mainly in mallee scrublands and woodlands, while in Western Australia, subspecies ''plumbea'' is found in various forests and woodlands, such as jarrah (''
Eucalyptus marginata ''Eucalyptus marginata'', commonly known as jarrah, djarraly in Noongar language and historically as Swan River mahogany, is a plant in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It is a tree with rough ...
''), karri ('' E. diversicolor''), tuart ('' E. gomphocephala'') and wandoo ('' E. wandoo''), as well as
paperbark ''Melaleuca'' () is a genus of nearly 300 species of plants in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, commonly known as paperbarks, honey-myrtles or tea-trees (although the last name is also applied to species of ''Leptospermum''). They range in size f ...
woodlands around swampy areas, and acacia shrublands dominated by summer-scented wattle ('' Acacia rostellifera'') and mulga ('' Acacia aneura'') with '' Eremophila'' understory.Higgins ''et al''., p. 566. Formerly common, the grey currawong appears to have declined across its distribution; it became scarce in northern Victoria in the 1930s, and in northeastern Victoria in the 1960s.
Habitat destruction Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
has seen it decline in southeastern South Australia around Naracoorte and from many areas in the Western Australian Wheatbelt. It also became rare in the
Margaret River The Margaret River is a river in southwest Western Australia. In a small catchment, it is the eponym of the town and tourist region of Margaret River. The river arises from a catchment of just 40 square kilometres in the Whicher Range. ...
and
Cape Naturaliste Cape Naturaliste is a headland in the south western region of Western Australia at the western edge of the Geographe Bay. It is the northernmost point of the Leeuwin-Naturaliste Ridge which was named after the cape. Also the Leeuwin-Naturaliste ...
regions after 1920, and vanished from much of the Swan Coastal Plain by the 1940s. One place which has seen an increase in numbers is the
Mount Lofty Ranges The Mount Lofty Ranges are a range of mountains in the Australian state of South Australia which for a small part of its length borders the east of Adelaide. The part of the range in the vicinity of Adelaide is called the Adelaide Hills and ...
in the 1960s. The species has never been common in the Sydney Basin and sightings have been uncommon and scattered since the time of John Gould in the early 19th century. The status of the species is uncertain in the Northern Territory, where it may be extinct. It has been classified as ''critically endangered'' there pending further information.


Behaviour

Overall, data on the social behaviour of the grey currawong is lacking, and roosting habits are unknown. It is generally shyer and more wary than its pied relative, but has become more accustomed to people in areas of high human activity in southwest Western Australia. Its undulating flight is rapid and silent. It hops or runs when on the ground. Birds are generally encountered singly or in pairs, but may forage in groups of three to eleven birds. Up to forty birds may gather to harvest a fruit tree if one is found.Higgins ''et al''., p. 569. The black-winged subspecies is seldom seen in groups larger than four or five, while the clinking currawong may form groups of up to forty birds over the non-breeding season. There is some evidence of
territoriality In ethology, territory is the sociographical area that an animal consistently defends against conspecific competition (or, occasionally, against animals of other species) using agonistic behaviors or (less commonly) real physical aggression. ...
, as birds in the Wheatbelt maintain territories year-round there. The grey currawong has been recorded harassing larger birds such as the
wedge-tailed eagle The wedge-tailed eagle (''Aquila audax'') is the largest bird of prey in the continent of Australia. It is also found in southern New Guinea to the north and is distributed as far south as the state of Tasmania. Adults of this species have lon ...
,
square-tailed kite The square-tailed kite (''Lophoictinia isura'') is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as kites, eagles and harriers. Taxonomy German naturalist Johann Jakob Kaup descr ...
and
Australian hobby The Australian hobby (''Falco longipennis''), also known as the little falcon, is one of six Australian members of the family Falconidae. This predominantly diurnal bird of prey derives its name ‘''longipennis''’ from its long primary wing f ...
. The species has been observed bathing by shaking its wings in water at ponds, as well as applying clay to its plumage after washing. Two species of
chewing louse The Mallophaga are a possibly paraphyletic section of lice Louse ( : lice) is the common name for any member of the clade Phthiraptera, which contains nearly 5,000 species of wingless parasitic insects. Phthiraptera has variously been re ...
have been isolated and described from grey currawongs: ('' Menacanthus dennisi'') from subspecies ''halmaturina'' on Kangaroo Island in South Australia, and '' Australophilopterus strepericus'' from subspecies ''arguta'' near Launceston in Tasmania. A new species of
spiruria Subclass Spiruria comprises mostly parasitic secernentean nematodes. In an alternate classification, they are treated as suborder Spirurina, with the orders listed here being ranked as infraorders. The Ascaridida and the Oxyurida, which include ...
n nematode, '' Microtetrameres streperae'' isolated from a grey currawong at
Waikerie Waikerie ( ) is a rural town in the Riverland region of South Australia on the south bank of the Murray River. At the , Waikerie had a population of 2,684. The Sturt Highway passes to the south of the town at the top of the cliffs. There is a c ...
was described in 1977. The parasitic
alveolate The alveolates (meaning "pitted like a honeycomb") are a group of protists, considered a major clade and superphylum within Eukarya. They are currently grouped with the stramenopiles and Rhizaria among the protists with tubulocristate mitochon ...
'' Isospora streperae'' was described from a grey currawong (subspecies ''plumbea'') from Western Australia.


Breeding

The breeding habits of the grey currawong are not well known, and the inaccessibility of its nests makes study difficult. The breeding season lasts from August to December. The grey currawong builds a large shallow nest of thin sticks lined with grass and bark high in trees; generally eucalypts are chosen. It produces a clutch of one to five (though usually two or three) rounded or tapered oval
eggs Humans and human ancestors have scavenged and eaten animal eggs for millions of years. Humans in Southeast Asia had domesticated chickens and harvested their eggs for food by 1,500 BCE. The most widely consumed eggs are those of fowl, especial ...
, which vary in size and colour according to subspecies. Those of subspecies ''versicolor'' average in size and are a pale brown or
buff Buff or BUFF may refer to: People * Buff (surname), a list of people * Buff (nickname), a list of people * Johnny Buff, ring name of American world champion boxer John Lisky (1888–1955) * Buff Bagwell, a ring name of American professional ...
with shades of pink or wine tones, and are marked with streaks or splotches of darker brown, purple-brown, slate-grey or even blue-tinged. Those of the black-winged currawong are similarly sized at and are buff or flesh-coloured with a purple tint and marked with darker browns or purple-browns. The clinking currawong lays larger and paler eggs of dull white, pale grey or buff with a faint wine-colour tint, and marked with darker tones of purple-, grey- or blue-tinged brown, which average . The eggs of the brown currawong are also pale wine-tinted brown, buff, or cream with darker markings of cinnamon, brown or purple-brown, and measure . Finally, the western subspecies lays eggs averaging in size which are pale shades of red-brown or wine-colour, with darker red-brown markings. In all subspecies, the markings can coalesce over the larger end of the egg to form a darker 'cap'. The incubation period is poorly known because of the difficulty of observing nests, but one observation suggested around 23 days from laying to hatching. Like all
passerine A passerine () is any bird of the order Passeriformes (; from Latin 'sparrow' and '-shaped'), which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines are distinguished from other orders of birds by th ...
s, the chicks are born naked, and blind (
altricial In biology, altricial species are those in which the young are underdeveloped at the time of birth, but with the aid of their parents mature after birth. Precocial species are those in which the young are relatively mature and mobile from the mome ...
), and remain in the nest for an extended period (
nidicolous In biology, nidifugous ( , ) organisms are those that leave the nest shortly after hatching or birth. The term is derived from Latin ''nidus'' for "nest" and ''fugere'', meaning "to flee". The terminology is most often used to describe birds and w ...
). Both parents feed the young.Higgins ''et al''., p. 572. Data on nesting success rates is limited; one study of 35 nests found that 28 (80%) resulted in the fledging of at least one young currawong. Causes of failure included nest collapse by gale-force winds and rain, and harassment and nest raiding by pied currawongs. The incidence of
brood parasitism Brood parasites are animals that rely on others to raise their young. The strategy appears among birds, insects and fish. The brood parasite manipulates a host, either of the same or of another species, to raise its young as if it were its ow ...
is uncertain. A pair of grey currawongs have been observed feeding a channel-billed cuckoo (''Scythrops novaehollandiae'') chick on one occasion.


Feeding

The grey currawong is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder. It preys on many invertebrates, such as snails, spiders and woodlice, and a wide variety of insects including beetles, earwigs, cockroaches, wasps, ants and grasshoppers, and smaller vertebrates, including frogs, lizards such as the
bearded dragon ''Pogona'' is a genus of reptiles containing six lizard species which are often known by the common name bearded dragons. The name "bearded dragon" refers to the underside of the throat (or "beard") of the lizard, which can turn black and gain we ...
as well as skinks, rats, mice, and nestlings or young of
Tasmanian nativehen The Tasmanian nativehen (''Tribonyx mortierii'') (palawa kani: piyura) (alternate spellings: Tasmanian native-hen or Tasmanian native hen) is a flightless rail and one of twelve species of birds endemic to the Australian island of Tasmania. Al ...
,
red wattlebird The red wattlebird (''Anthochaera carunculata'') is a passerine bird native to southern Australia. At in length, it is the second largest species of Australian honeyeater. It has mainly grey-brown plumage, with red eyes, distinctive pinkish-re ...
,
eastern spinebill The eastern spinebill (''Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris'') is a species of honeyeater found in south-eastern Australia in forest and woodland areas, as well as gardens in urban areas of Canberra, Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide. It is around 15&nb ...
, house sparrow (''Passer domesticus''), and
splendid fairywren The splendid fairywren (''Malurus splendens'') is a passerine bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is also known simply as the splendid wren or more colloquially in Western Australia as the blue wren. The splendid fairywren is fou ...
(''M. splendens''), It has been recorded hunting at the nests of the
superb fairywren The superb fairywren (''Malurus cyaneus'') is a passerine bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae, and is common and familiar across south-eastern Australia. It is a sedentary and territorial species, also exhibiting a high degree of sex ...
(''Malurus cyaneus''), and the
bell miner The bell miner (''Manorina melanophrys''), commonly known as the bellbird, is a colonial honeyeater, endemic to southeastern Australia. The common name refers to their bell-like call. 'Miner' is an old alternative spelling of 'myna', and is shar ...
(''Manorina melanophrys''). A wide variety of plant material is also consumed, including the fruit or berries of ''
Ficus ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extendi ...
'' species, '' Leucopogon'' species, '' Exocarpos'' species, a cycad ''
Macrozamia riedlei ''Macrozamia riedlei'', commonly known as a zamia or zamia palm, is a species of cycad in the plant family Zamiaceae. It is endemic to southwest Australia and often occurs in jarrah forests. It may only attain a height of half a metre or form an ...
'', a mistletoe '' Lysiana exocarpi'', '' Astroloma humifusum'', '' A. pinifolium'', ''
Myoporum insulare ''Myoporum insulare'', commonly known as common boobialla, native juniper, is a species of flowering plant in the figwort family Scrophulariaceae and is endemic to coastal areas of Australia. It is a shrub or small tree which grows on dunes and c ...
'', ''
Enchylaena tomentosa ''Enchylaena tomentosa'', commonly known as barrier saltbush or ruby saltbush, is a small native shrub of Australia. Description ''Enchylaena tomentosa'' grows as a small perennial shrub, up to a meter in diameter. Leaves are slender and cylind ...
'' and ''
Coprosma quadrifida ''Coprosma quadrifida'' is a dioecious shrub of the family Rubiaceae native to southeastern Australia. First described as ''Canthium quadrifidum'' by Labillardiere, it was given its current name by B. L. Robinson in 1910. Typically found at damp ...
''. The grey currawong also eats berries of introduced plants such as ''
Pyracantha angustifolia ''Pyracantha angustifolia'' is a species of shrub in the rose family known by the common names narrowleaf firethorn, slender firethorn and woolly firethorn. The flowers are white and produce small round pomes and can be orange to red in color. ...
'' and '' P. fortuneana'', and ''
Cotoneaster ''Cotoneaster'' is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, native to the Palaearctic region (temperate Asia, Europe, north Africa), with a strong concentration of diversity in the genus in the mountains of southwestern China an ...
'' species, and crops such as
maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The ...
,
apple An apple is an edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus domestica''). Apple trees are cultivated worldwide and are the most widely grown species in the genus ''Malus''. The tree originated in Central Asia, where its wild ancestor, ' ...
s,
pear Pears are fruits produced and consumed around the world, growing on a tree and harvested in the Northern Hemisphere in late summer into October. The pear tree and shrub are a species of genus ''Pyrus'' , in the family Rosaceae, bearing the po ...
s, quince, various stone fruit of the genus ''
Prunus ''Prunus'' is a genus of trees and shrubs, which includes (among many others) the fruits plums, Cherry, cherries, peaches, Peach#Nectarine, nectarines, apricots, and almonds. Native to the North American temperate regions, the neotropics of Sou ...
'',
grape A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus '' Vitis''. Grapes are a non- climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters. The cultivation of grapes began perhaps 8,000 years a ...
s,
tomato The tomato is the edible berry of the plant ''Solanum lycopersicum'', commonly known as the tomato plant. The species originated in western South America, Mexico, and Central America. The Mexican Nahuatl word gave rise to the Spanish word ...
,
passion flower ''Passiflora'', known also as the passion flowers or passion vines, is a genus of about 550 species of flowering plants, the type genus of the family Passifloraceae. They are mostly tendril-bearing vines, with some being shrubs or trees. The ...
s, and the nectar of gymea lily (''
Doryanthes excelsa ''Doryanthes excelsa'', commonly known as the gymea lily, is a flowering plant in the family Doryanthaceae that is endemic to coastal areas of New South Wales near Sydney. It has sword-like leaves more than long and it grows a flower spike u ...
''). On Kangaroo Island, the grey currawong has been identified as the main
vector Vector most often refers to: *Euclidean vector, a quantity with a magnitude and a direction *Vector (epidemiology), an agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism Vector may also refer to: Mathematic ...
for the spread of bridal creeper (''
Asparagus asparagoides ''Asparagus asparagoides'', commonly known as bridal creeper, bridal-veil creeper, ''gnarboola'', smilax or smilax asparagus, is a herbaceous climbing plant of the family Asparagaceae native to eastern and southern Africa. Sometimes grown as an ...
''). Boneseed ('' Chrysanthemoides monilifera'' subspecies ''monilifera''), another invasive species readily dispersed in bird droppings, is also consumed by grey currawongs. In Tasmania, ''A. pinifolium'' is especially popular, and one observer noted that the normally noisy birds became quiet and sluggish after eating it, prompting him to wonder whether the plant had a narcotic effect on the birds. Foraging takes place on the ground, or less commonly in trees or shrubs. Most commonly the grey currawong probes the ground for prey, but sometimes chases more mobile animals. It has been recorded removing insects from parked cars, as well as employing the ''zirkeln'' method, where it inserts its bill in a crack or under a rock and uses it to lever open a wider space to hunt prey. In one case, a bird was observed holding bark off the branch of a
eucalypt Eucalypt is a descriptive name for woody plants with capsule fruiting bodies belonging to seven closely related genera (of the tribe Eucalypteae) found across Australasia: ''Eucalyptus'', ''Corymbia'', ''Angophora'', '' Stockwellia'', ''Allosyn ...
and levering open gaps every with its bill. The grey currawong usually swallows prey whole, although one bird was observed impaling a rodent on a stick and eating parts of it, in the manner of a butcherbird. A field study on
road ecology Road ecology is the study of the ecological effects (both positive and negative) of roads and highways (public roads). These effects may include local effects, such as on noise, water pollution, habitat destruction/disturbance and local air qualit ...
in southwestern Australia revealed that the grey currawong is unusual in inhabiting cleared areas adjacent to roads. However, it was not recorded feeding on roadkill, and moves away from the area in breeding season. It was also commonly hit and killed by vehicles.


Conservation status

The grey currawong has a very large range and thus does not meet the range size criteria for vulnerable. The population trend appears to be stable, although the population size has not been quantified, it is unlikely to approach the susceptible thresholds under the population size criterion (10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10 percent in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure), and the
International Union for Conservation of Nature The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of nat ...
evaluated it as
least concern A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wild. T ...
.


In Aboriginal mythology

A grey currawong features in the major Dreaming story of the
Kaurna people The Kaurna people (, ; also Coorna, Kaura, Gaurna and other variations) are a group of Aboriginal people whose traditional lands include the Adelaide Plains of South Australia. They were known as the Adelaide tribe by the early settlers. Kaurna ...
, when the ancestor hero
Tjilbruke Tjilbruke (also Tjirbruki, Tjilbruki, Tjirbruke, Tjirbuk or Tjirbuki,) is an important creation ancestor for the Kaurna of the Adelaide plains in the Australian state of South Australia. Tjilbruke was a Kaurna man, who appeared in Kaurna Drea ...
kills one in order to use fat and feathers to cover his body before transforming himself into a
glossy ibis The glossy ibis (''Plegadis falcinellus'') is a water bird in the order Pelecaniformes and the ibis and spoonbill family Threskiornithidae. The scientific name derives from Ancient Greek ''plegados'' and Latin, ''falcis'', both meaning "sickle" a ...
at
Rosetta Head Rosetta Head, known as Kongkengguwar by the Ramindjeri people but more commonly known as The Bluff, is a headland located on the south coast of Fleurieu Peninsula in Encounter Bay, South Australia, within the local government area of the City ...
.


References

; Notes ; Cited texts * *


External links


'Nest of the squeaker bird', drawing by A. J. Campbell, now in NLA catalogue
{{Featured article
grey currawong The grey currawong (''Strepera versicolor'') is a large passerine bird native to southern Australia, including Tasmania. One of three currawong species in the genus ''Strepera'', it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie o ...
Birds of South Australia Birds of New South Wales Birds of Victoria (Australia) Birds of Tasmania Birds of Western Australia Endemic birds of Australia
grey currawong The grey currawong (''Strepera versicolor'') is a large passerine bird native to southern Australia, including Tasmania. One of three currawong species in the genus ''Strepera'', it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie o ...
grey currawong The grey currawong (''Strepera versicolor'') is a large passerine bird native to southern Australia, including Tasmania. One of three currawong species in the genus ''Strepera'', it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie o ...