The 9K32 Strela-2 (russian: Cтрела, "arrow";
NATO reporting name
NATO reporting names are code names for military equipment from Russia, China, and historically, the Eastern Bloc (Soviet Union and other nations of the Warsaw Pact). They provide unambiguous and easily understood English words in a uniform manne ...
SA-7 Grail) is a light-weight, shoulder-fired,
surface-to-air missile
A surface-to-air missile (SAM), also known as a ground-to-air missile (GTAM) or surface-to-air guided weapon (SAGW), is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles. It is one type of anti-aircraft syst ...
(or
MANPADS) system. It is designed to target aircraft at low altitudes with passive
infrared homing guidance and destroy them with a high explosive
warhead
A warhead is the forward section of a device that contains the explosive agent or toxic (biological, chemical, or nuclear) material that is delivered by a missile, rocket, torpedo, or bomb.
Classification
Types of warheads include:
* Explosiv ...
.
Broadly comparable in performance with the
US Army
The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, cla ...
FIM-43 Redeye
The General Dynamics FIM-43 Redeye is a man-portable surface-to-air missile system. It uses passive infrared homing to track its target. Production began in 1962 andin anticipation of the Redeye II, which later became the FIM-92 Stingerended in ...
, the Strela-2 was the first
Soviet
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, ...
man-portable SAM – full-scale production began in 1970.
While the Redeye and 9K32 Strela-2 were similar, the missiles were not identical.
The Strela-2 was a staple of the
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
and was produced in huge numbers for the Soviet Union and their allies, as well as
revolutionary movements
A revolutionary movement (or revolutionary social movement) is a specific type of social movement dedicated to carrying out a revolution. Charles Tilly defines it as "a social movement advancing exclusive competing claims to control of the state ...
.
Though since surpassed by more modern systems, the Strela and its variants remain in service in many countries, and have seen widespread use in nearly every regional conflict since 1972.
Development
The end of World War II led to a major shift in Soviet defence policy. The advent of long range, high altitude, nuclear-armed American bombers, capable of penetrating Soviet airspace at heights and speeds unreachable and unmatchable by
anti-aircraft gun
Anti-aircraft warfare, counter-air or air defence forces is the battlespace response to aerial warfare, defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action".AAP-6 It includes surface based, ...
s and most interceptors, appeared to render every conventional weapon obsolete at a stroke. Numerous long-range, high-altitude SAM systems, such as the
S-25 Berkut
The S-25 ''Berkut'' (russian: С-25 «Беркут»; "Berkut" means golden eagle in English) is a surface-to-air guided missile, the first operational SAM system in the Soviet Union. In the early 1950s it was tested at Kapustin Yar. It was depl ...
and
S-75 Dvina
The S-75 (Russian: С-75; NATO reporting name SA-2 Guideline) is a Soviet-designed, high-altitude air defence system, built around a surface-to-air missile with command guidance. Following its first deployment in 1957 it became one of the most w ...
, were rapidly developed and fielded to counter this large vulnerability. Due to the apparent "obsolescence" of conventional arms, however, relatively little development took place to field mobile battlefield air defences.
This direction was soon changed with the beginning of the
Korean War
, date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
. An entirely conventional conflict, it proved that nuclear weapons were not the be-all and end-all of warfare. In the face of a powerful and modern American air force, carrying non-nuclear payloads, the Soviet Union invested heavily in a multi-tier
air defence system
Anti-aircraft warfare, counter-air or air defence forces is the battlespace response to aerial warfare, defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action".AAP-6 It includes surface based, ...
, consisting of several new mobile SAMs, to cover all altitude ranges and protect ground forces. The new doctrine listed five requirements:
*
Front
Front may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Films
* ''The Front'' (1943 film), a 1943 Soviet drama film
* ''The Front'', 1976 film
Music
* The Front (band), an American rock band signed to Columbia Records and active in the 1980s and e ...
-level medium-to-high-altitude area defense system
9K8 Krug (NATO designation SA-4 "Ganef")
*
Army
An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...
-level low-to-medium-range area defense system
3K9 Kub (NATO designation SA-6 "Gainful")
*
Division
Division or divider may refer to:
Mathematics
*Division (mathematics), the inverse of multiplication
*Division algorithm, a method for computing the result of mathematical division
Military
*Division (military), a formation typically consisting ...
-level low-altitude short-range system
9K33 Osa
The 9K33 ''Osa'' (, literally "wasp"; NATO reporting name SA-8 ''Gecko'') is a highly mobile, low-altitude, short-range tactical surface-to-air missile system developed in the Soviet Union in the 1960s and fielded in 1972. Its export version na ...
(NATO designation SA-8 "Gecko")
*
Regiment
A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, service and/or a specialisation.
In Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted ...
-level all-weather radar-guided gun system
ZSU-23-4
The ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" is a lightly armored Soviet self-propelled, radar-guided anti-aircraft weapon system ( SPAAG).
Etymology
The acronym "ZSU" stands for ''Zenitnaya Samokhodnaya Ustanovka'' (russian: Зенитная Самоходная Ус ...
"Shilka" and very-short-range missile systems
Strela-1 (NATO designation SA-9 "Gaskin")
*
Battalion
A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of 300 to 1,200 soldiers commanded by a lieutenant colonel, and subdivided into a number of companies (usually each commanded by a major or a captain). In some countries, battalions are ...
-level man-portable Strela-2 (NATO designation SA-7 "Grail")
Both Strela-1 and Strela-2 were initially intended to be man-portable systems. As the Strela-2 proved to be a considerably smaller and lighter package, however, the role of the Strela-1 was changed, becoming a heavier,
vehicle-mounted system with increased range and performance to better support the
ZSU-23-4
The ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" is a lightly armored Soviet self-propelled, radar-guided anti-aircraft weapon system ( SPAAG).
Etymology
The acronym "ZSU" stands for ''Zenitnaya Samokhodnaya Ustanovka'' (russian: Зенитная Самоходная Ус ...
in the regimental air defense role.
![SA-7a components](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/SA-7a_components.jpg)
As development began in the Turopov
OKB
OKB is a transliteration of the Russian initials of "" – , meaning 'experiment and design bureau'. During the Soviet era, OKBs were closed institutions working on design and prototyping of advanced technology, usually for military applications. ...
(later changed to Kolomna), detailed information on the design of the US
FIM-43 Redeye
The General Dynamics FIM-43 Redeye is a man-portable surface-to-air missile system. It uses passive infrared homing to track its target. Production began in 1962 andin anticipation of the Redeye II, which later became the FIM-92 Stingerended in ...
became available. While it was not a
reverse-engineered
Reverse engineering (also known as backwards engineering or back engineering) is a process or method through which one attempts to understand through deductive reasoning how a previously made device, process, system, or piece of software accompli ...
copy, in many ways the Strela design borrowed heavily from the Redeye, which had started development a few years earlier. Due to the comparatively primitive Soviet technical base, development was protracted, and many problems arose, especially in designing a sufficiently small seeker head and rocket. Eventually, the designers settled for a simpler seeker head than that of the Redeye, allowing the initial version, the 9K32 "Strela-2" (
US DoD
The United States Department of Defense (DoD, USDOD or DOD) is an executive branch department of the federal government charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government directly related to national secur ...
designation ''SA-7A'', missile round 9M32) to finally enter service in 1968, five years behind schedule. At the time, it was described by one expert as being "the premier Russian export line".
Improvements
The initial variant suffered from numerous shortcomings: it could only engage targets flying at relatively slow airspeeds and low altitudes and then only from rear hemisphere, it suffered from poor guidance reliability (particularly in the presence of natural or man-made background IR radiation sources), and even when a hit was achieved, it often failed to destroy the target.
[Lappi, Ahti: Ilmatorjunta Kylmässä Sodassa, 2003][On arrows and needles: Russia's Strela and Igla portable killers. ]Journal of Electronic Defense
The Association of Old Crows is an international nonprofit professional organization specializing in electronic warfare, tactical information operations, and associated disciplines headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia.
Its mission is to "advocat ...
, January, 2004. Michal Fiszer and Jerzy Gruszczynski Poor lethality was an issue especially when used against jet aircraft: the hottest part of the target was the
nozzle
A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (specially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe.
A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, a ...
behind the actual engine, which the missile therefore usually hit; but there its small warhead often failed to cause significant damage to the engine itself.
In order to address the shortcomings, two improved versions were ordered in 1968; as an intermediate stop-gap the slightly improved 9K32M "Strela-2M" (NATO reporting name SA-7b) to replace the original, as well as the more ambitious
Strela-3.
![SA-7b Grail](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/SA-7b_Grail.jpg)
As the modifications introduced with the Strela-2M were relatively minor, the process was fast and it was accepted in service in 1970.
The Strela-2M replaced the Strela-2 in production lines immediately. Improvements were made particularly to increase the engagement envelope of the new system:
* Higher thrust propellant increased slant range from and ceiling from
* Improved guidance and control logic allowed the engagement of helicopters and propeller-driven aircraft (but not jets) approaching at a maximum speed of
* Maximum speed of receding targets was increased from
* More automated gripstock provided a simplified firing method against fast targets: a single trigger pull followed by lead and
superelevation replacing the separate stages of releasing the seeker to track, and launching the missile (see description below)
Contrary to what was initially reported in some Western publications, more recent information indicates that, while lethality on impact had proven to be a problem, the warhead remained the same unit (including TNT charge) as in the original.
This remained the warhead of all Soviet MANPADS up to and including most
9K38 Igla
The 9K38 Igla (russian: Игла́, "needle", NATO reporting name SA-18 Grouse) is a Russian/Soviet man-portable infrared homing surface-to-air missile (SAM) system. A simplified, earlier version is known as the 9K310 Igla-1 (NATO: SA-16 Gi ...
variants; to address the problem of poor lethality, a more powerful HE filling than TNT, improved fuzing, a terminal maneuver, and finally a separate charge to set off any remaining rocket fuel were gradually introduced in later MANPADS systems, but the original Strela-2/2M warhead design of a directed-energy HE charge in a pre-fragmented casing remained.
The seeker head improvements were only minor changes to allow better discrimination of the target signal against background emissions.
Some sources claim that the seeker sensitivity was also improved.
The only defence against infra-red
countermeasures
A countermeasure is a measure or action taken to counter or offset another one. As a general concept, it implies precision and is any technological or tactical solution or system designed to prevent an undesirable outcome in the process. The fi ...
remained the seeker head's narrow
field of view
The field of view (FoV) is the extent of the observable world that is seen at any given moment. In the case of optical instruments or sensors it is a solid angle through which a detector is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation.
Humans a ...
, which could be hoped to help the rapidly slowing flare fall off the missile field of view as it was tracking a fast-moving target.
In practice,
flares proved to be a highly effective countermeasure against both versions of the Strela-2.
The seeker is commonly referred to as a hot metal tracker. The seeker can only see infrared energy in the near infrared (NIR) spectrum, emitted by very hot surfaces only seen on the inside of the jet nozzle. This allows only rear-aspect engagement of jet targets, earning the weapon its other moniker as a revenge weapon, since the missile has to "chase" an aircraft after it has already passed by.
The Strela-2M was also procured for use on-board
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact (WP) or Treaty of Warsaw, formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republic ...
warships;
[''War Machine'', issue 64 (magazine), 1984, Orbis Publications, p. 1274.] installed on four-round pedestal mounts
aboard Soviet amphibious warfare vessels and various smaller combatants, the weapon remained unchanged, but was assigned the NATO reporting name SA-N-5 "Grail".
Description
The missile launcher system consists of the green missile launch tube containing the missile, a grip stock and a cylindrical thermal battery. The launch tube is reloadable at depot, but missile rounds are delivered to fire units in their launch tubes. The device can be reloaded up to five times.
![SA-7 MANAPADS, air defense training in the US](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/SA-7_MANAPADS%2C_air_defense_training_in_the_US.jpg)
When engaging slow or straight-receding targets, the operator tracks the target with the iron sights in the launch tube and applies half-trigger. This action "uncages" the seeker and allows its attempt to track. If a target IR signature can be tracked against the background present, this is indicated by a light and a buzzer sound. The shooter then pulls the trigger fully, and immediately applies lead and superelevation. This method is called a manual engagement. An automatic mode, which is used against fast targets, allows the shooter to fully depress the trigger in one pull followed by immediate lead and superelevation of the launch tube. The seeker will uncage and will automatically launch the missile if a strong enough signal is detected.
The manufacturer lists reaction time measured from the carrying position (missile carried on a soldier's back with protective covers) to missile launch to be 13 seconds, a figure that is achievable but requires considerable training and skill in missile handling. With the launcher on the shoulder, covers removed and sights extended, reaction time from fire command to launch reduces to 6–10 seconds, depending greatly on the target difficulty and the shooter's skill.
After activating the power supply to the missile electronics, the gunner waits for electricity supply and gyros to stabilize, puts the sights on target and tracks it smoothly with the launch tube's iron sights, and pulls the trigger on the grip stock. This activates the seeker electronics and the missile attempts to lock onto the target. If the target is producing a strong enough signal and the angular tracking rate is within acceptable launch parameters, the missile alerts the gunner that the target is locked on by illuminating a light in the sight mechanism, and producing a constant buzzing noise. The operator then has 0.8 seconds to provide lead to the target while the missile's on-board power supply is activated and the throw-out motor ignited.
Should the target be outside acceptable parameters, then the light cue in the sight and the buzzer signal tell the gunner to re-aim the missile.
On launch, the
booster
Booster may refer to:
Amusement rides
* Booster (Fabbri ride), a pendulum ride
* Booster (HUSS ride), an evolution of the Breakdance ride
* Booster (KMG ride), a pendulum ride
Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional characters
* Booster, a cha ...
burns out before the missile leaves the launch tube at 32 m/s and rotating at around 20 revolutions per second. As the missile leaves the tube, the two forward steering fins unfold, as do the four rear stabilizing tail fins. The self-destruct mechanism is then armed, which is set to destroy the missile after between 14 and 17 seconds to prevent it hitting the ground if it should miss the target.
![Fliegerfaust STRELA](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Fliegerfaust_STRELA.jpg)
Once the missile is five and a half meters away from the gunner, c. 0.3 seconds after leaving the launch tube, it activates the rocket sustainer motor. The sustainer motor takes it to a velocity of , and sustains it at this speed. Once it reaches peak speed, at a distance of around from the gunner, the final safety mechanism is disabled and the missile is fully armed. All told, the booster burns for 0.5 second and the driving engine for another 2.0 seconds.
The missile's uncooled lead sulfide passive infra-red seeker head detects infrared radiation at below 2.8 μm in wavelength. It has a 1.9 degree field of view and can track at 9 degrees per second. The seeker head tracks the target with an amplitude-modulated spinning reticle (spin-scan or AM tracking), which attempts to keep the seeker constantly pointed towards the target. The spinning reticle measures the amount of incoming infrared (IR) energy. It does this by using a circular pattern that has solid portions and slats that allow the IR energy to pass through to the seeker. As the reticle spins IR energy passes through the open portions of the reticle. Based on where the IR energy falls on the reticle the amount or amplitude of IR energy allowed through to the seeker increases the closer to the center of the reticle. Therefore, the seeker is able to identify where the center of the IR energy is. If the seeker detects a decrease in the amplitude of the IR energy it steers the missile back towards where the IR energy was the strongest. The seeker's design creates a dead-space in the middle of the reticle. The center mounted reticle has no detection capability. This means that as the seeker tracks a target as soon as the seeker is dead center, (aimed directly at the IR source) there is a decrease in the amplitude of IR energy. The seeker interprets this decrease as being off target so it changes direction. This causes the missile to move off target until another decrease in IR energy is detected and the process repeats itself. This gives the missile a very noticeable wobble in flight as the seeker bounces in and out from the dead-space. This wobble becomes more pronounced as the missile closes on the target as the IR energy fills a greater portion of the reticle. These continuous course corrections effectively bleed energy from the missile reducing its range and velocity.
![sa-7](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/SA-7.jpg)
The guidance of the SA-7 follows proportional convergence logic, also known as angle rate tracking system or pro-logic. In this method, as the seeker tracks the target, the missile is turned towards where the seeker is turning towards – not where it is pointing at – relative to the missile's longitudinal axis. Against a target flying in a straight-line course at constant speed, the angle rate of seeker-to-body reduces to zero when the missile is in a straight-line flight path to intercept point.
Combat use
As a consequence of their widespread availability and large numbers, the Strela system has seen use in conflicts across the globe.
Middle East
Egypt
The first combat use of the missile is credited as being in 1969 during the
War of Attrition
The War of Attrition ( ar, حرب الاستنزاف, Ḥarb al-Istinzāf; he, מלחמת ההתשה, Milhemet haHatashah) involved fighting between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and their allies from ...
by Egyptian soldiers.
The first "kill" was claimed on 19 August 1969. An Israeli
102 Squadron A-4H Skyhawk was hit with a shoulder-fired missile 12 miles west of the Suez Canal and pilot SqL Nassim Ezer Ashkenazi captured. Between this first firing and June 1970 the Egyptian army fired 99 missiles resulting in 36 hits. The missile proved to have poor kinematic reach against combat jets, and also poor lethality as many aircraft that were hit managed to return safely to base.
The missile was used later in the
Yom Kippur War
The Yom Kippur War, also known as the Ramadan War, the October War, the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, or the Fourth Arab–Israeli War, was an armed conflict fought from October 6 to 25, 1973 between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egy ...
,
where 4,356 Strelas were fired,
scoring few hits and just 2
–4
kills, with 26
–28
damaged. A-4s were fitted with lengthened exhaust pipes in order to prevent fatal damage to the engine, a solution made in the previous war, together with flare launchers. However, together with
Shilka and
SA-2
The S-75 (Russian: С-75; NATO reporting name SA-2 Guideline) is a Soviet-designed, high-altitude air defence system, built around a surface-to-air missile with command guidance. Following its first deployment in 1957 it became one of the most w ...
/
3/
6s, they caused very heavy losses to the
Israeli Air Force
The Israeli Air Force (IAF; he, זְרוֹעַ הָאֲוִיר וְהֶחָלָל, Zroa HaAvir VeHahalal, tl, "Air and Space Arm", commonly known as , ''Kheil HaAvir'', "Air Corps") operates as the aerial warfare branch of the Israel Defense ...
in the first days. Subsequently, Arab forces fired so many SAMs that they almost depleted their weapon stocks. SA-7s were not that effective against fast jets, but they were the best weapon available to Arab infantry at the time.
A Strela 2 was reportedly used by the Islamist militant group
Ansar Bait al-Maqdis
Ansar Bait al-Maqdis (ABM; ar, أَنْصَارُ بَيْتِ الْمَقْدِس, Anṣār Bayt al-Maqdis, lit=Supporters of the Holy House), or Ansar Al-Quds (), was a jihadist, extremist militant group based in Egypt.
Ansar Bait al-Maqdis ...
to destroy an Egyptian military Mil-8 helicopter operating in the northern Sinai region on 26 January 2014 near Sheikh Zuweid (close to the border with Gaza), killing its five occupants. This is the first attack of this type during the
Sinai insurgency
The Sinai insurgency is an ongoing insurgency in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt, that was commenced by Islamist militants against Egyptian security forces, which have also included attacks on civilians. The insurgency began during the Egyptian C ...
, which has raged on the peninsula due to the security and political turmoil since the
2011 revolution. The MANPADS is reported by
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
to have come from former Libyan leader
Muammar Gaddafi
Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi, . Due to the lack of standardization of transcribing written and regionally pronounced Arabic, Gaddafi's name has been romanized in various ways. A 1986 column by ''The Straight Dope'' lists 32 spellin ...
's large stocks, which have been widely proliferated after
Libya's civil war chaos and have become a concern to regional and world security.
Syria
The Strela was deployed by
Syrian forces occupying Lebanon, along with other Soviet air-defence systems that challenged U.S., French and Israeli airpower in the aftermath of the
1982 conflict and the deployment of the
Multinational Force in Lebanon
The Multinational Force in Lebanon (MNF) was an international peacekeeping force created in August 1982 following a 1981 U.S.-brokered ceasefire between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Israel to end their involvement in the confl ...
during that year. On 10 November 1983, an SA-7 was fired at a French
Super Etendard
Super may refer to:
Computing
* SUPER (computer program), or Simplified Universal Player Encoder & Renderer, a video converter / player
* Super (computer science), a keyword in object-oriented programming languages
* Super key (keyboard butt ...
near
Bourj el-Barajneh
Bourj el-Barajneh ( ar, برج البراجنة, lit=Tower of Towers) is a municipality located in the southern suburbs of Beirut, in Lebanon. The municipality lies between Beirut–Rafic Hariri International Airport and the town of Haret Hreik ...
while flying over
Druze
The Druze (; ar, دَرْزِيٌّ, ' or ', , ') are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethnoreligious group from Western Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, syncretic, and ethnic religion based on the teachings of ...
People's Liberation Army
The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the principal military force of the People's Republic of China and the armed wing of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The PLA consists of five service branches: the Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, ...
(PLA) positions. On 3 December, more Strelas and anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) were fired at
United States Navy
The United States Navy (USN) is the maritime service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. It is the largest and most powerful navy in the world, with the estimated tonnage ...
F-14 Tomcat
The Grumman F-14 Tomcat is an American carrier-capable supersonic aircraft, supersonic, twinjet, twin-engine, two-seat, twin-tail, variable-sweep wing fighter aircraft. The Tomcat was developed for the United States Navy's Naval Fighter Experi ...
s flying a reconnaissance mission.
The Americans responded with a large strike package of 12
A-7 Corsair
The LTV A-7 Corsair II is an American carrier-capable subsonic light attack aircraft designed and manufactured by Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV).
The A-7 was developed during the early 1960s as replacement for the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk. Its design was ...
s and 16
A-6 Intruder
The Grumman A-6 Intruder is an American twinjet all-weather attack aircraft developed and manufactured by American aircraft company Grumman Aerospace and operated by the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps.
It was designed in response to a 1957 ...
s (supported by a single
E-2C Hawkeye
The Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye is an American all-weather, carrier-based aircraft, carrier-capable tactical Airborne early warning and control, airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft. This twin-turboprop aircraft was designed and developed duri ...
, two
EA-6B Prowlers
The Northrop Grumman (formerly Grumman) EA-6B Prowler is a twin-engine, four-seat, mid-wing electronic-warfare aircraft derived from the A-6 Intruder airframe. The EA-6A was the initial electronic warfare version of the A-6 used by the United S ...
and two F-14As) launched from the carriers and sailing in the Mediterranean. The aircraft were to bomb Syrian installations, AAA sites and weapons depots near Falouga and
Hammana
Hammana ( ar, حمانا) is a town in Lebanon, about 26 km (16 miles) east of Beirut. At an altitude of 1200 m (about 4000 ft) above sea level, Hammana is in the Mount Lebanon Governorate in the district (or Caza) of Baabda. Hammana i ...
, some 16 km north of
Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
-
Damascus
)), is an adjective which means "spacious".
, motto =
, image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg
, image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg
, seal_type = Seal
, map_caption =
, ...
highway, when they were received by a volley of (possibly up to 40) Syrian SAMs, one of which hit a Corsair (AE305 of the
VA-15), forcing the pilot to eject over the sea before being rescued by a USN
search and rescue
Search and rescue (SAR) is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger. The general field of search and rescue includes many specialty sub-fields, typically determined by the type of terrain the search ...
mission.
The attack formation broke, with each pilot attacking each objective on its own, leading to the downing of a second U.S aircraft, an Intruder from VA-85, hit by either an SA-7 or an SA-9. The navigator, Lieutenant
Bobby Goodman
Robert O. Goodman (born 30 November 1956) is a former United States Navy bombardier–navigator. He was shot down in his A-6 Intruder over Lebanon on 4 December 1983. Captured upon ejection from his stricken plane, he was held captive for 30 da ...
ejected near a village surrounded by Syrian positions. The pilot, Lt. Mark Lange, ejected too late and died from his wounds soon after being captured by Syrian soldiers and Lebanese civilians. Goodman was captured by the Syrians and taken to Damascus before being freed in January 1984.
A second Corsair, searching for the downed Intruder crew, was later hit by an SA-7. The pilot, Cdr. Edward Andrews, managed to eject over the sea near Beirut and was rescued by a fisherman and his son who in turn handed him over to the
U.S Marines.
During the
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
, several Strelas have made their way to
rebel hands, and YouTube videos have shown them being fired. In 2013, ''
Foreign Policy
A State (polity), state's foreign policy or external policy (as opposed to internal or domestic policy) is its objectives and activities in relation to its interactions with other states, unions, and other political entities, whether bilaterall ...
'', citing rebels sources, reported the shipment, with Qatari help, of some 120 SA-7s from Libya (with large stocks acquired by Gaddafi and proliferated after that country's civil war) through Turkey and with Turkish authorities' knowledge
Lebanon
On 24 June 1974, Palestinian guerrillas operating in southern Lebanon fired two SA-7s against invading
Israel Air Force
The Israeli Air Force (IAF; he, זְרוֹעַ הָאֲוִיר וְהֶחָלָל, Zroa HaAvir VeHahalal, tl, "Air and Space Arm", commonly known as , ''Kheil HaAvir'', "Air Corps") operates as the aerial warfare branch of the Israel Defense ...
(IAF) aircraft, though no hits were scored.
[See US State Department Cable Beirut 7015, Jun. 20, 1974]
The Lebanese
Al-Mourabitoun
The Independent Nasserite Movement – INM ( ar-at, حركة الناصريين المستقلين-المرابطون, translit=Harakat al-Nasiriyin al-Mustaqillin) or simply Al-Murabitoun ( lit. ''The Steadfast''), also termed variously Mouveme ...
militia received either from Syria or the PLO a number of SA-7s, which they employed against
Israeli Air Force
The Israeli Air Force (IAF; he, זְרוֹעַ הָאֲוִיר וְהֶחָלָל, Zroa HaAvir VeHahalal, tl, "Air and Space Arm", commonly known as , ''Kheil HaAvir'', "Air Corps") operates as the aerial warfare branch of the Israel Defense ...
(IAF)
fighter-bomber jets during the
1982 Lebanon War
The 1982 Lebanon War, dubbed Operation Peace for Galilee ( he, מבצע שלום הגליל, or מבצע של"ג ''Mivtsa Shlom HaGalil'' or ''Mivtsa Sheleg'') by the Israeli government, later known in Israel as the Lebanon War or the First L ...
.
During the 1983–84
Mountain War
The Mountain War ( ar, حرب الجبل , ''Harb al-Jabal''), also known as the War of the Mountain and Guerre de la Montagne in French language, French, was a subconflict between the Lebanese Civil War#Second phase of the war.2C 1982-1983, 1 ...
, the
Druze
The Druze (; ar, دَرْزِيٌّ, ' or ', , ') are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethnoreligious group from Western Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, syncretic, and ethnic religion based on the teachings of ...
People's Liberation Army
The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the principal military force of the People's Republic of China and the armed wing of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The PLA consists of five service branches: the Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, ...
(PLA) militia received from Syria a number of Strela missiles, which were used to bring down two
Lebanese Air Force
The Lebanese Air Force (LAF) ( ar, القوات الجوية اللبنانية, Al Quwwat al-Jawwiya al-Lubnaniyya) is the aerial warfare branch of the Lebanese Armed Forces. The seal of the air force is a Roundel with two wings and a Lebanese C ...
Hawker Hunter
The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Hawker Aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was designed to take advantage of the newly developed Rolls-R ...
fighter jets
Fighter aircraft are fixed-wing military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat. In military conflict, the role of fighter aircraft is to establish air superiority of the battlespace. Domination of the airspace above a battlefield ...
and one Israeli
IAI Kfir
, abbreviated , is a Japanese martial art that emphasizes being aware and capable of quickly drawing the sword and responding to sudden attacks.Christensen, Karen and Allen Guttmann et.al (2001) ''International Encyclopedia of Women and Sports ...
fighter-bomber aircraft
A fighter-bomber is a fighter aircraft that has been modified, or used primarily, as a light bomber or attack aircraft. It differs from bomber and attack aircraft primarily in its origins, as a fighter that has been adapted into other roles, ...
, on November 20, over the mountainous
Chouf district
Chouf (also spelled Shouf, Shuf or Chuf, in ''Jabal ash-Shouf''; french: La Montagne du Chouf) is a historic region of Lebanon, as well as an administrative district in the governorate (muhafazat) of Mount Lebanon.
Geography
Located south-east o ...
southeast of
Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
(the pilot was rescued by the
Lebanese Army
)
, founded = 1 August 1945
, current_form = 1991
, disbanded =
, branches = Lebanese Ground ForcesLebanese Air Force Lebanese Navy
, headquarters = Yarze, Lebanon
, flying_hours =
, websit ...
). The
Christian Maronite
The Maronite Church is an Eastern Catholic Churches, Eastern Catholic ''sui iuris'' particular church in full communion with the pope and the worldwide Catholic Church, with self-governance under the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. Th ...
Lebanese Forces militia (LF) also received from Iraq a number of Strela missiles in 1988–89.
The
Shiite
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most ...
Hezbollah
Hezbollah (; ar, حزب الله ', , also transliterated Hizbullah or Hizballah, among others) is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and militant group, led by its Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah since 1992. Hezbollah's parami ...
guerrilla group also acquired some Strelas in the late 1980s and fired them against Israeli aircraft in November 1991. Since then, they have since fired many Strelas against Israeli aircraft, including two against Israeli warplanes on 12 June 2001 near
Tyre, but have never scored a hit.
Iraq
In the early dawn of 31 January 1991, during the
Battle of Khafji
The Battle of Khafji was the first major ground engagement of the Persian Gulf War. It took place in and around the Saudi Arabian city of Khafji, from 29 January to 1 February 1991 and marked the culmination of the Coalition's air campaign ov ...
in
Operation Desert Storm
Operation or Operations may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* ''Operation'' (game), a battery-operated board game that challenges dexterity
* Operation (music), a term used in musical set theory
* ''Operations'' (magazine), Multi-Man ...
, an Iraqi soldier shot down an American
AC-130H gunship with a Strela 2, killing all 14 crewmembers.
Strela-2 missiles have been used against
Turkish Army
The Turkish Land Forces ( tr, Türk Kara Kuvvetleri), or Turkish Army (Turkish: ), is the main branch of the Turkish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. The army was formed on November 8, 1920, after the collapse of the ...
helicopters by the
PKK
The Kurdistan Workers' Party or PKK is a Kurdish militant political organization and armed guerrilla movement, which historically operated throughout Kurdistan, but is now primarily based in the mountainous Kurdish-majority regions of sout ...
in northern
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
. During
Operation Hammer; on 18 May 1997, a Strela-2 missile was used to shoot down an
AH-1W Super Cobra
The Bell AH-1 SuperCobra is a twin-engined attack helicopter that was developed on behalf of, and primarily operated by, the United States Marine Corps (USMC). The twin Cobra family, itself part of the larger Huey family, includes the AH-1J Se ...
attack helicopter. On 4 June 1997, another Strela was used to bring down a Turkish Army
AS-532UL Cougar transport helicopter in the
Zakho
Zakho, also spelled Zaxo ( ku, زاخۆ, Zaxo, syr, ܙܵܟ݂ܘܿ, Zākhō, , ) is a city in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, at the centre of the eponymous Zakho District of the Dohuk Governorate, located a few kilometers from the Iraq–Turkey bo ...
area, killing the 11 soldiers on board.
The video of the first attack was used extensively for PKK propaganda and eventually released to the Internet. Greece and
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
's intelligence services, as well as Iran, Syria, Armenia, and Cyprus were traced as possible sources of the missiles.
A Strela-2 missile is said to have been used in April 2005, when members of the insurgents shot down an
Mi-8
The Mil Mi-8 (russian: Ми-8, NATO reporting name: Hip) is a medium twin-turbine helicopter, originally designed by the Soviet Union in the 1960s and introduced into the Soviet Air Force in 1968.
It is now produced by Russia.
In addition to ...
helicopter operated by
Blackwater, killing all 11 crew members. The
Islamic Army in Iraq
The Islamic Army in Iraq (IAI) ( ar, الجيش الإسلامي في العراق ''al jaysh al islāmi fī'l-`irāq'') was one of a number of underground Islamist militant (or ''mujahideen'') organizations formed in Iraq following the 2003 invas ...
took responsibility for the action and a video showing the downing was released on the Internet.
The missile launcher is not visible on the video, however, making it impossible to confirm the type of MANPADS used.
The spate of helicopter shoot-downs during 2006 and 2007 in Iraq has been partly attributed to the prevalence of the Strela amongst Sunni insurgent groups of that time; while
al Qaeda
Al-Qaeda (; , ) is an Islamic extremist organization composed of Salafist jihadists. Its members are mostly composed of Arabs, but also include other peoples. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian and military targets in various countr ...
is said to have produced an hour-long training video on how to use SA-7s.
Saudi Arabia
In late 2001, a Sudanese man with links to
Al-Qaida
Al-Qaeda (; , ) is an Islamic extremist organization composed of Salafist jihadists. Its members are mostly composed of Arabs, but also include other peoples. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian and military targets in various countri ...
fired an SA-7 at an American
F-15 Eagle
The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle is an American twin-engine, all-weather tactical fighter aircraft designed by McDonnell Douglas (now part of Boeing). Following reviews of proposals, the United States Air Force selected McDonnell Douglas's ...
fighter taking off from
Prince Sultan Air Base
Prince Sultan Air Base ( ar, قاعدة الأمير سلطان الجوية) (PSAB) is a military air base located in the closed-city of Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia.
History
There was formerly a large United States presence there during Operat ...
in Saudi Arabia. The missile missed the target and was not detected by the pilot or anyone at the base. Saudi police found the empty launcher in the desert in May 2002, and a suspect was arrested in Sudan a month later. He led police to a cache in the desert where a second missile was buried.
Gaza
During October 2012, militants in Gaza fired a Strela at an Israel Defense Forces, IDF helicopter.
During Operation Pillar of Defense, Hamas released a video purporting to be a Strela missile launch at an Israeli Air Force, IAF target. In March 2013, one was also reportedly fired from Gaza at an IAF helicopter.
And in 2022 one was fired at IAF F16 to stop the air raid.
Yemen
Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula allegedly shot down a UAE Mirage fighter jet with a Strela during the Yemeni Civil War (2015–present). Houthi rebels were seen carrying 9K32 Strela-2s.
Southeast Asia
The Strela-2 system was also given to North Vietnam, where along with the more advanced Strela-2M it achieved 204 hits out of 589 firings against US and South Vietnamese aircraft between 1972 and 1975 according to Russian sources.
(Some sources, such as Fiszer (2004),
claim that it was used from 1968 onwards).
Roughly 90–110 kills and several dozen damaged are attributed to Strela-2/2M hits between April 1972 and the Fall of Saigon in April 1975, almost all against helicopters and propeller-driven aircraft. As in the War of Attrition, the missile's speed and range proved insufficient against fast jets and results were poor: only one U.S A-4 Skyhawk, one U.S F-4 Phantom and three South Vietnamese F-5 Freedom Fighter are known to have been shot down with Strela-2s during the conflict.
U.S fixed-wing losses are listed in the following table.
[''Vietnam Air Losses'', Christopher Hobson, 2002] The internet site Arms-expo.ru states 14 fixed-wing aircraft and 10 helicopters were shot down with 161 missile rounds used between 28 April and 14 July 1972.
Between April 1972 and January 1973, 29 fixed-wing aircraft and 14 helicopters were shot down (01 F-4, 7 O-1, 03 O-2, 04 OV-10, 09 A-1 Skyraider, A-1, 04 Cessna A-37 Dragonfly, A-37, 01 CH-47, 04 Bell AH-1 Cobra, AH-1, 09 UH-1) The difference in fixed-wing losses may be at least partly due to South Vietnamese aircraft shot down by the weapon.
The table shows heavy losses particularly in the beginning of May, with especially lethal results on the 1st and 2nd, where the shootdown of the O-2 FAC led to further losses when a rescue operation was attempted. After these initial losses, changes in tactics and widespread introduction of decoy flares helped to counter the threat, but a steady flow of attrition and necessity of minimizing time spent in the Strela's engagement envelope nonetheless continued to limit the effectiveness of US battlefield air operations until the end of US involvement in South-East Asia. The United States lost at least 10 AH-1 Cobras and several UH-1 Hueys to Strela-2/2M hits in South East Asia.
From 28 January 1973 to July 1973, the Republic of Vietnam Air Force lost 8 aircraft and helicopter with 22 missile rounds used (1 A-37, 3 A-1, 1 F-5, 2 UH-1, 1 CH-47)
From January 1973 to June 1974, the Republic of Vietnam Air Force lost at least 17 aircraft and helicopter by Strela-2 From 28 January 1973 to 31 December 1974, they lost at least 28 aircraft by Strela-2 and few dozen other were damaged.
In 1975 spring offensive, few dozen aircraft and helicopter were shotdown by SA-7. On 14 April, one F-5 was shotdown In Ho Chi Minh campaign, PAVN claimed 34 aircraft and helicopter were shotdown by SA-7, including 9 were shotdown on 29 April
In the late 1980s, Strela-2s were used against Royal Thai Air Force aircraft by Laotian and Vietnamese forces during numerous border clashes. An RTAF F-5E was damaged on 4 March 1987 and another F-5E was shot down on 4 February 1988 near the Thai-Cambodian border.
Western Asia
Afghanistan
![Mujahid-MANPAD](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Mujahid-MANPAD.JPEG)
Strela-2M was used also in Afghanistan during the Soviet–Afghan War by the Mujahiddeen. The missiles were obtained from various sources, some from Egypt and China (locally manufactured Sakr Eye and HN-5 versions of the SAM), and the CIA also assisted the guerrillas in finding missiles from other sources.
Results from combat use were not dissimilar from experiences with the Strela-2/2M from Vietnam: while 42 helicopters were shot down by various Strela-2 variants (including a few Mi-24s until exhaust shrouds made them next to invisible to the short-wavelength Strela-2 seeker) only five fixed-wing aircraft were destroyed with the weapon. Due to its poor kinematic performance and vulnerability to even the most primitive infra-red countermeasures, the guerrillas considered the Strela-2 suitable for use against helicopters and prop-driven transports, but not combat jets.
However, the recent studies and interviews after the Cold war say that most Strelas sold to the Mujahiddeen on the black market were broken/damaged or faulty. This is possibly another reason why the Soviet army in Afghanistan didn't expect working anti-aircraft missiles like the FIM-92 Stinger, Stinger to be used.
On 22 July 2007 the first reported attack of the Taliban against a International Security Assistance Force, coalition aircraft using MANPADS was reported. The weapon was reported to be an SA-7 allegedly smuggled from Iran to the Taliban. The missile failed after the crew of the USAF C-130, flying over the Nimroz province, launched flares and made evasive manoeuvers.
However, most of the Strelas operated by al-Qaeda in Afghanistan are probably inherited from fighters that used it during the Soviet invasion. Most are probably faulty, broken or in other ways not usable (even from the beginning) against military helicopters, with the intercepts of NATO aviation by Stingers (acquired also during 80s) or other missiles.
Georgia
The SA-7 saw heavy usage by all sides during the Georgian Civil War. The first known loss to an SA-7 happened on 13 June 1993, when a GAF Su-25 was shot down by a Strela over Shubara. On two later occasions, Georgian airliners (a Tu-134A and a Tu-134B) were shot down by SA-7s, killing a total of 110 people.
Africa
Guinea-Bissau
When PAIGC rebels Guinea-Bissau War of Independence, in Guinea began to receive SA-7s in early 1973, these immediately became a threat to Portuguese air supremacy. On 23 March 1973, two Portuguese Air Force (FAP) Fiat G.91s were shot down by SA-7s, followed six weeks later by another Fiat, and a Dornier Do 27.
[http://s188567700.online.de/CMS/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=220&Itemid=47 ]
Mozambique
FRELIMO fighters in Mozambique were also able to field some SA-7s with Chinese support, although the weapon is not known to have caused any losses to the FAP, even if it forced Portuguese pilots to change their tactics. In one case a Douglas DC-3 carrying foreign military attaches and members of the senior Portuguese military command was hit by an SA-7 in one of the engines. The crippled plane managed to land safely and was later repaired.
[http://s188567700.online.de/CMS/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=139&Itemid=47 ]
Angola
In Angola and Namibia, SA-7s were deployed against the South African Air Force with limited success. The SAAF lost Atlas Impalas to Strelas on 24 January 1980 and 10 October 1980. Another Impala was hit by an SA-7 on 23 December 1983, but the pilot was able to fly the aircraft back to Ondangwa AB. UNITA also reportedly obtained 50 SA-7s that Israel had captured, via the CIA. The first one was fired at Cuban aircraft by a French mercenary on 13 March 1976, but the missile failed to hit the target. The individual missiles may have been in poor condition, as none scored a direct hit.
[Angola since 1961](_blank)
Retrieved 4 October 2011. Additionally, it is claimed that UNITA used SA-7s to shoot down two Transafrik International Lockheed C-130 Hercules, Lockheed L-100-30 Hercules flying UN charters, on 26 December 1998 and 2 January 1999, both near Huambo.
Sudan
Using an SA-7, the Sudan People's Liberation Army shot down a Sudan Airways Fokker F27 Friendship, Fokker F-27 Friendship 400M taking off from Malakal on 16 August 1986, killing all 60 on board. On 21 December 1989, an Aviation without Borders, Aviation Sans Frontières Britten-Norman Islander, Britten-Norman BN-2A-9 Islander (F-OGSM) was shot down by an SA-7 while taking off from Aweil Sudan, killing the four crew on board.
Western Sahara
The Polisario Front used SA-7s against the Royal Moroccan Air Force and Military of Mauritania, Mauritanian Air Force during the Western Sahara War over the former Spanish colonies of the Spanish Sahara. The Mauritania Air Force lost a Britten-Norman Defender to a SA-7 fired by the Polisario on 29 December 1976. Between 1975 and 1991, the Royal Moroccan Air Force has lost several Northrop F-5A Freedom Fighters and Dassault Mirage F1s to SA-7s fired by the Polisario. In a case of mistaken identity, a Dornier 228 owned by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research was shot down over the Western Sahara near Dakhla, Western Sahara, Dakhla on 24 February 1985. Two Dornier 228s named Polar 2 and Polar 3 were on a return flight to Germany following a South Pole expedition. After having taken off from Dakar, Senegal, en route to Arrecife, Canary Islands, flying 5 minutes behind Polar 2 and at a lower altitude (9,000 feet), Polar 3 was shot down by a SA-7 fired by the Polisario. The crew of three was killed. In another incident, on 8 December 1988, two Douglas DC-7CFs flying at 11,000 feet from Dakar, Senegal to Agadir, Morocco for a locust control mission there, had SA-7s fired at them by the Polisario. One aircraft, N284, was hit and lost one of its engines and part of a wing. This led to the aircraft crashing, killing the crew of five. The other aircraft, N90804, also was hit and lost an engine along with suffering other damage, but it was able to land safely at Sidi Ifni Morocco.
Airliner attacks
During the Rhodesian Bush War, members of the military wing of the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army brought down two Vickers Viscount civilian airliners near Kariba, Zimbabwe, Kariba; the first in September 1978, the second in February 1979. There was great loss of life in both instances as the flights were returning from a well known tourist attraction.
* Vickers Viscount, Air Rhodesia Flight 825, Flight RH825, 3 September 1978 – downed by a Strela missile near Kariba Dam. After initial impact, the pilot was able to make an emergency landing in a nearby field but the aircraft broke up on impact. Eighteen of the fifty-six passengers in the tail section survived the crash. Ten of these survivors were shot dead at the crash-site by insurgents, who later looted the bodies and wreckage.
* Vickers Viscount, Air Rhodesia Flight RH827, Flight RH827, 12 February 1979 – shot by down Strela missile near Kariba Dam; all 59 people on board were killed.
UNITA claimed that they used one to shoot down a TAAG Angola Airlines, TAAG Boeing 737-2M2 taking off from Lubango on 8 November 1983.
A Lignes Aériennes Congolaises Boeing 727-30 taking off from Kindu was shot down by an SA-7 fired by rebel forces in 1998, killing all 41 on board.
Two missiles were fired at a Boeing 757 during the 2002 Mombasa attacks in Kenya. Neither missile struck its target.
Latin America
Argentina
Strela-2M missiles were available to Argentinian troops in the Falkland Islands during the Falklands War. War Machine Encyclopedia shows no records of any launches, but several missiles were captured.
[War Machine, Italian version printed by De Agostini, Novara, 1983, p.155] The missiles were supplied by Libya.
Nicaragua
The Strela-2 was used by both Sandinista government forces and Contra insurgents during the Nicaraguan Revolution, 1979–1990 civil war.
On 3 October 1983, at about 10:00 am, Sandinista soldier Fausto Palacios used a Strela to shoot down a Contra-operated Douglas DC-3 that had taken off from Catamacas airport in Honduras, carrying supplies, over the area of Los Cedros, in the Nueva Segovia Department. One crewman died in the crash and four were captured by government forces. The pilot, Major Roberto Amador Alvarez, as well as his co-pilot Capt. Hugo Reinaldo Aguilar were former members of the extinct National Guard (Nicaragua), National Guard of the former dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle.
On 27 August 1984, Sandinista soldier Fanor Medina Leyton shot down a Contra-operated Douglas C-47 Skytrain with a Strela. Sources differ over the attack and crash area: both a Russian source and Sandinista officials reported the Jinotega Department, while the Aviation Safety Network reports the Quilalí area in the Nueva Segovia department. All eight occupants were killed. The pilot, José Luis Gutiérrez Lugo, was reported as a former pilot for the Somoza family. Sandinista and Contra forces subsequently battled for the control of six packages dropped from the plane.
On 5 October 1986 a Corporate Air Services C-123 Provider (HPF821, previously N4410F and USAF 54-679, (c/n 20128)) conducting a covert drop of arms to Contras, Contra fighters in Nicaragua was shot down by Sandinista soldier José Fernando Canales Alemán, using an SA-7. CIA pilots William J. Cooper and Wallace "Buzz" Sawyer as well as radio operator Freddy Vilches were killed in the crash. Loadmaster Eugene Hasenfus parachuted to safety and was taken prisoner. He was later released in December 1986. The flight had departed Ilopango Airport, El Salvador loaded with 70 Soviet-made AK-47 rifles and 100,000 rounds of ammunition, rocket grenades and other supplies.
El Salvador
FMLN rebels acquired SA-7 missiles around 1989 and employed them extensively in the closing years of the Salvadoran Civil War, dramatically increasing the combat losses of Salvadoran Air Force aircraft. At least two O-2 Skymasters (on 26 September and 19 November 1990), one A-37 Dragonfly (on November 23, 1990), two Hughes 500 helicopters (2 February and 18 May 1990), and two UH-1Hs were lost to SA-7s. One of the UH-1Hs (on 2 January 1991) was crewed by US Army personnel, while the other was operated by the Honduran Air Force.
Colombia
In late December 2012, a video showing FARC rebels attempting to shoot down a Colombian Air Force UH-60 Black Hawk, Arpía helicopter with an SA-7 in the Cauca Department, Cauca raised the alarm in the Colombian military, though the missile failed.
During that same month, a Strela was captured by the Colombian military. It is believed that they might came from Cuba, Nicaragua or Peru; the only Latin American operators of the type. Furthermore, the CIA's motive to remove and destroy Chinese copies of the SA-7 (HN-5s) from Bolivia in 2005 was the fear of them reaching FARC rebels because, according to a US military magazine, “they used the HN-5 against Colombian-operated U.S-made helicopters”. The Ecuadorian Army captured an HN-5 allegedly destined for the FARC in the border province of Sucumbíos Province, Sucumbíos, near Colombia, in July 2013.
Europe
Northern Ireland
The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) acquired some missiles from Libya. One was reported to have been fired at a British Army Air Corps Westland Lynx, Lynx helicopter in July 1991 in County Armagh, South Armagh; however, it missed its target. To counter the new threat, the British helicopters flew in pairs below 15 meters (50 feet) or above 150 meters (500 feet).
Spain
In 2001, the Basque separatist group ETA (separatist group), ETA tried on three occasions (29 April, 4 and 11 May) to use Strela 2 missiles to shoot down the Dassault Falcon 900 aircraft with the then-Spanish Prime Minister Jose Maria Aznar on board. The attempts, which were made near the San Sebastián Airport, Fuenterrabía and Foronda airports, were unsuccessful as each time the missiles failed to launch. In 2004, several systems were captured by the Civil Guard (Spain), Civil Guard. Some Strela 2 missiles were bought from the IRA in 1999, while Libya was tracked as the original source used by the IRA.
Ukraine
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Germany reversed its ban on weapon sales to provide Ukraine with military support. On 23 March 2022, German Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock confirmed the delivery of 500 Strela missiles from Germany.
Versions
![9K32 operators](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/9K32_operators.png)
* 9K32M Strela-2M: "SA-7b Grail"
* Strela 2M/A: Yugoslav upgraded version with larger warhead
* :de:CA-94 (Luftabwehrrakete), CA-94 and CA-94M: Romanian license-built versions of the 9K32 and 9K32M, respectively
* HN-5: Chinese unlicensed copy
* Anza-2, Anza Mk-I: Pakistani license-built copy of Chinese HN-5
* Ayn al Saqr (عين الصقر; "Hawk Eye"): Egyptian copy
* Hwasung-Chong: North Korean license-built copy of Egyptian Ayn al Saqr system
Operators
Current operators
* Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades
* Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula
* al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
* Al-Shabaab (militant group), Al-Shabaab
*
*
*
*
*
* Boko Haram
*
*
*
license-built
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda: 2 systems
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
![Flag of Syria 2011, observed](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Syrian_revolution_flag.svg)
Free Syrian Army
*
*
*
*
*
* Hamas
*
Hezbollah
Hezbollah (; ar, حزب الله ', , also transliterated Hizbullah or Hizballah, among others) is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and militant group, led by its Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah since 1992. Hezbollah's parami ...
* Hizbul Mujahideen
* Houthis
*
*
* Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, Islamic State
* Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, Islamic State Sinai Province
*
* Jaish al-Islam
*
* Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)
*
*
*
*
*
[Thomas W. Zarzecki, (2002). Arms Diffusion: The Spread of Military Innovations in the International System. Routledge ]
* Lord's Resistance Army
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa
*
*
* National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad
*
*
*
*
* Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine, Palestinian Islamic Jihad
(also known as al-Quds Brigades)
*
* Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command
* Popular Mobilization Units
*
* Rally of Democratic Forces (rebel group), Rally of Democratic Forces
*
*
*
*
*
* Seychelles
*
*
*
* Somaliland
*
* South Sudan Liberation Movement
*
* Sudan Revolutionary Front
*
*
![Flag of Hayat Tahrir al-Sham](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_Hayat_Tahrir_al-Sham.svg)
Tahrir al-Sham
*
* Taliban
*
*
*
*
*
*
* United Wa State Army
*
*
*
*
*
Former operators
*
![Flag of Jihad](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Flag_of_Jihad.svg)
Afghan Mujahideen
* African National Congress
*
![Flag of Ahlu Sunnah Waljamaca](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Flag_of_Ahlu_Sunnah_Waljamaca.svg)
Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a
* Ansar al-Islam
* Ansar al-Sharia (Libya)
*
* Armed Forces Revolutionary Council
* Army of Republika Srpska
* Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina
*
Al-Mourabitoun
The Independent Nasserite Movement – INM ( ar-at, حركة الناصريين المستقلين-المرابطون, translit=Harakat al-Nasiriyin al-Mustaqillin) or simply Al-Murabitoun ( lit. ''The Steadfast''), also termed variously Mouveme ...
* : Phased out from active service. 29 disposed of.
*
![Flag of Caucasian Emirate](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Caucasian_Emirate.svg)
Caucasus Emirate
* Union of Forces for Democracy and Development, Chadian Union of Forces for Democracy and Development
* CNRDR
* Contras
*
*
*
*
* ETA (separatist group), ETA
* Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN)
*
![Flag of the FARC-EP](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Flag_of_the_FARC-EP.svg)
FARC
* (Strela-2M operated under designation 'ItO-78')
*
![Flag of FRELIMO (1997-2004)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Flag_of_FRELIMO_%281997%E2%80%932004%29.svg)
Frelimo
*
* Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, Harkat ul-Ansar
*
*
*
Islamic Army in Iraq
The Islamic Army in Iraq (IAI) ( ar, الجيش الإسلامي في العراق ''al jaysh al islāmi fī'l-`irāq'') was one of a number of underground Islamist militant (or ''mujahideen'') organizations formed in Iraq following the 2003 invas ...
* Islamic Courts Union
* Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in Libya, Islamic State in Libya
* Jaish al-Haramoun
*
![Flag of Jamiat-e Islami](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Jamiat-e_Islami.svg)
Jamiat-e Islami
*
* National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan, Jumbish-e-Mili
*
![UCK KLA](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kosovo_Liberation_Army.svg)
Kosovo Liberation Army
* Kurdistan Democratic Party
*
*
![Forces Libanaises Flag](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Forces_Libanaises_Flag.svg)
Lebanese Forces (militia), Lebanese Forces
* Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
* Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy
* Shura Council of Mujahideen in Derna, Mujahideen Shura Council of Derna
*
![Flag of CNDP](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_CNDP.svg)
National Congress for the Defence of the People, National Congress for the Defense of the Congolese People
* National Liberation Army (Macedonia), National Liberation Army
* Niger Movement for Justice
* North Vietnam
* Yemen Arab Republic, North Yemen
*
![Flag of PAIGC](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Flag_of_PAIGC.svg)
PAIGC
* Palestinian Authority
* Palestine Liberation Organization factions in Lebanon;
likely As-Sa'iqa
* Patriotic Movement of Côte d'Ivoire
* People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola
*
![People's Liberation Army Flag](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Flag.jpg)
People's Liberation Army (Lebanon)
* (until 2018)
* MPLA, People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola
* Popular Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Arabian Gulf
* Provisional Irish Republican Army
* Revolutionary United Front
* Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat
* Sandinista National Liberation Front
*
![Shan State Army flag](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Shan_State_Army_flag.png)
Shan State Army
*
* Somali National Alliance
* United Somali Congress, Somali Salvation Alliance
*
*
*
* Sudan People's Liberation Army
Incorporated into government.
*
![Flag of UNITA](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Flag_of_UNITA.svg)
UNITA
* Viet Cong
* White mercenaries in the Congo
[S. Boyne, "The White Legion: Mercenaries in Zaire", ''Jane's Intelligence Review'', London. June 1997, p. 279.]
*
*
![Zimbabwe African People's Union flag](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union_flag.svg)
Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army
See also
* List of Russian weaponry
References
*
External links
Training of Czech Air defence units – video
{{Russian and Soviet missiles, SAM
Cold War surface-to-air missiles of the Soviet Union
Surface-to-air missiles of Russia
Surface-to-air missiles of the Soviet Union
KB Mashinostroyeniya products
Military equipment introduced in the 1960s